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Introduction of Digital Signal Processing


Prepared By
Mohammed Abdul kader
Assistant Professor, Dept. of EEE, IIUC
Contents
 Signals, systems and signal processing.
 Basic Elements of DSP.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of DSP.
 Application of DSP.
 Types of Signal.
 A/D Conversion.
 Problems

Text Book:
Digital Signal Processing (4th Edition), John G. Proakis, Dimitris K Manolakis

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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Signals, Systems and Signal Processing
Signal
A signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other
independent variable or variables. Mathematically, we describe a signal as a function of one or
more independent variables. For example,
𝑆1 (𝑡) = 5𝑡
𝑆 𝑥𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 2𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑦 2
 Speech, electrocardiogram and electroencephalogram signals are examples of information
bearing signals that evolve as function of a single independent variable.
 Two dimensional signal An example of a signal that is a function of two independent
variable is an image signal.
 A video signal is function of three independent variables.

3
Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Signals, Systems and Signal Processing (Cont.)

System
A system may be defined as a physical device that performs an operation on a signal. For
example, a filter used to reduce the noise and interference corrupting a desired information
bearing signal is a system.
Signal Processing
When we pass a signal through a system, we say that we have processed the signal.

Input Processed
Signal System Signal

Signal
Processing

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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Basic Elements of a DSP System

A/D Converter: Digital Signal Processing provides an alternative method for processing the
analog signal. To perform the processing digitally, there is a need for an interface between the analog
signal and the digital processor. This interface is called analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.
DSP: The digital signal processor may be a large programmable digital computer or a small
microprocessor programmed to perform the desired operation in the input signal.
D/A Converter: The digital output from the digital signal processor is to be given to the user in
analog form. This is done by another interface called a digital-to-analog(D/A) converter.
5 Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Advantages of Digital over Analog Signal Processing
1) DSP Systems are reconfigurable: A digital programmable system allows flexibility in
configuring the digital signal processing operations simply by changing the program.
Reconfiguration of an analog system usually a redesign of hardware followed by testing and
verification to see that it operates properly.
2) Accuracy Consideration: Tolerances in analog circuit components make it extreme
difficult for the system designer to control the accuracy of an analog signal processing system.
On the other hand, a digital system provides much better control of accuracy requirements.
3) Storing Data: Digital signals are easily stored on magnetic media (tape or disk) without de-
terioration or loss of signal fidelity beyond that introduce in the A/D conversion. As a
consequence, the signals become transportable and can be processed off-line in a remote
laboratory.

6 Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Advantages of Digital over Analog Signal Processing (Cont.)
4) Signal Processing Algorithm: The digital signal processing method also allows for the
implementation of more sophisticated signal processing algorithms. It is usually very difficult to
perform precise mathematical operations on a signal in analog form but these same operations can
be routinely implemented on a digital computer using software.
5) Cost: In some cases a digital implementation of the signal processing system is cheaper than its
analog counterpart.

Disadvantages of Digital Signal Processing

One practical limitation is the speed of operation of A /D converters and digital signal
processors. We shall see that signals having extremely wide band widths require fast-sampling
rate A /D converters and fast digital signal processors. Hence there are analog signals with large
bandwidths for which a digital processing approach is beyond the state of the art of digital
hardware.

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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Classification of Signals: Multichannel and Multidimensional
Multichannel Signal
In some application, signals are generated by multiple source or multiple sensors. Such signals, in
turn, can be represented in vector form. We refer to such a vector of signals as a multichannel signal.
In electrocardiogram, for example, 3-lead and 12-electrocardiogram (ECG) are often used in practice
which result in a 3 channel and 12 channel signals.
Multidimensional Signal
If the signal is a function of a single independent variable, the signal is called a one dimensional signal.
On the other hand, a signal is called M-dimensional if its value is a function of M independent variable.
Black and white picture is an example of a two-dimensional signal, since the intensity or brightness
I(x,y) at each point is a function of two independent variables.
Black and white TV picture me be treated as a three-dimensional signal.
Color TV picture is a three-channel and three-dimensional signal.
𝐼𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡)
𝐼 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡)
𝐼𝑏 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑡)
8 Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Classification of Signals: Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signal
Continuous Time Signal
Continuous signals or analog signals are defined for every value of time and they take on values in the
continuous interval (a,b), where a can be −∞ and b can be +∞
Examples: 𝑥1 𝑡 = cos⁡(𝜋𝑡)
𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑒 − 𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒⁡𝑡 = −∞ < 𝑡 < ∞

Discrete time Signal


Discrete time signals are defined only at certain specific values of time. These time instants need not be
equidistant, but in practice they are usually taken at equally spaced intervals.
Examples:

0.8𝑛 , 𝑛≥0
𝑥1 𝑛 =
⁡⁡0, ⁡𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

n is integer number.

9 Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Classification of Signals: Continuous Valued and Discrete Valued
The values of a continuous time or discrete time signal can be continuous or discrete.
Continuous Valued Signal: If a signal takes on all possible values on a finite or an infinite range, it is
said to be a continuous valued signal.
Discrete Valued Signal: Alternatively, if the signal takes on values from a finite set of possible
values, it is said to be discrete-valued signal.
Digital Signal: A discrete time signal having a set of discrete values is called a digital signal. In order
for a signal to be processed digitally, it must be discrete in time and its values must be discrete (i.e. it
must be digital signal)

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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Classification of Signals: Deterministic and Random Signal

Deterministic Signal: Any signal that can be uniquely described by an explicit mathematical
expression, a table of data or a well defined rule is called deterministic. This term is used to emphasize
the fact that all past, present and future values of the signal are known precisely without any
uncertainty.
Random Signal: In many practical application the signals can not be described to any reasonable
degree of accuracy by explicit mathematical formulas, or such description is too complicated to be any
practical use.
The lack of such a relationship implies that such signals evolve in time is an unpredictable manners. We
refer to these signals as random.
The o/p of noise generation, the speech signal are example of random signals.

11 Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Typical Digital Signal Processing Example in Real-World
Applications
Digital Crossover Audio System
 An audio system is required to operate in an entire audible range of frequencies, which may be
beyond the capability of any speaker driver.
 Several drivers, such as the speaker cones and horns, each covering a different frequency range, are
used to cover the full audio frequency range.
 Figure shows a two-band digital crossover system consisting of two speaker drivers: a woofer and a
tweeter. The woofer responds to low frequencies, while the tweeter responds to high frequencies.

 The incoming digital audio


signal is split into two bands
by using a digital low pass
filter and a digital high pass
filter in parallel.

 Then the separated audio signals are amplified and finally sent to their corresponding speaker driver.
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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Typical DSP Example in Real-World Applications (Continued)
Interference Cancellation in Electrocardiography
 In ECG recording, there often is unwanted 60-Hz interference in the recorded data.
 The interference comes from the power line and includes magnetic induction, displacement current
in the leads or in the body of the patient, effects from the equipment interconnections, and other
imperfections.

 Although using proper grounding or


twisted pairs minimizes such 60 Hz
effects, another effective choice can
be use of a digital notch filter, which
eliminates the 60 Hz interference
while keeping all other useful
information

13
Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Typical DSP Example in Real-World Applications (Continued)
Speech Coding and Compression
 Analog signal is first sent through an analog low pass filter to remove high frequency noise
components and is then passed through the ADC unit, where the digital values at sampling instants
are captured by the DS processor.
 Next, the captured data are compressed using data compression rules to reduce the storage
requirements. Finally, the compressed digital information is sent to storage media.
 To retrieve the information, the reverse process is applied. The DS processor decompresses the data
from the storage media and sends the recovered digital data to DAC. The analog output is acquired by
filtering the DAC output via the reconstruction filter.

Simplified data
Compressor

Simplified data
decompressor

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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Application of DSP

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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Analog to digital Conversion

Sampling : This is the conversion o f a continuous-time signal into a discrete time signal obtained by
taking “ samples’" of the continuous-time signal at discrete-time instants. Thus, if 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) is the input
to the sampler, the output is 𝑥𝑎 𝑛𝑇 = 𝑥 𝑛 , where T is called the sampling interval.
Quantization : This is the conversion o f a discrete-time continuous-valued signal 𝑥(𝑛)in to a
discrete-time, discrete-valued (digital) signal 𝑥𝑞 (𝑛). The value of each signal sample is represented
by a value selected from a finite set o f possible values.
Coding: In the coding process, each discrete value 𝑥𝑞 (𝑛) is represented by a b-bit binary sequence.

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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Sampling of Analog Signals
Periodic or uniform sampling is described by the relation- 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥𝑎 𝑛𝑇 , ⁡ −∞ ≤ 𝑛 ≤ ∞
where x(n) is the discrete-time signal obtained by “ taking samples” of the analog signal 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) at
every T seconds. The time interval T between successive samples is called the sampling period or
sample interval and its reciprocal 1 = 𝐹𝑠 is called the sampling rate (samples per second) or the
𝑇

sampling frequency (hertz).

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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Sampling of Analog Signals (Cont.)
Periodic sampling establishes a relationship between the time variables t and n of continuous-time and
discrete-time signals.
𝑛
𝑡 = 𝑛𝑇 =
𝐹𝑠

If the analog signal


Sampled periodically at a rate 𝐹𝑠 = 1 𝑇, the digital signal can be expressed as

From above relationship between the frequency variable F (or Ω) for analog signals and the frequency
variable f (or 𝜔) for discrete-time signals.

The frequency variable f of discrete signal is sometimes called Relative normalized frequency

18
Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Alias of Frequency
Consider two sinusoidal analog Signals:

If they are sampled at a rate 𝐹𝑠 = 40⁡𝐻𝑧, The corresponding discrete time signal will be:

Thus the sinusoidal signals are identical and consequently, indistinguishable.


Since 𝑥2 (𝑡) yields exactly the same values as 𝑥1 (𝑡) when the two are sampled at 𝐹𝑠 = 40
samples per second, we say that the frequency 𝐹2 = 50⁡𝐻𝑧 is an alias of the frequency
𝐹1 = 10⁡𝐻𝑧 at the sampling rate of 40 samples per second.
It is important to note that 𝐹2 is not only the alias of 𝐹1 . In fact at the sampling rate of 40 samples
per second, the frequency 𝐹3 = 90⁡𝐻𝑧, 𝐹4 = 130 Hz ….. So on are also an alias of 𝐹1 .
In general, all of the sinusoids cos 2𝜋 𝐹1 + 40𝐾 𝑡 , 𝑘 = 1,2,3 … . , sampled at 40 samples per
second are the aliases of 𝐹1 = 10⁡𝐻𝑧.
19 Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Alias of Frequency (What should be the sampling Rate?)

20 Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Example 1.4.2 (Proakis) VVI

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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Example 1.4.2 (Proakis)- Cont.

22 Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Sampling Theorem
If the highest frequency contained in an analog signal 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) is 𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑩 and the signal is sampled at
a rate 𝑭𝒔 > 𝟐𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 ≡ 𝟐𝑩. then 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) can be exactly recovered from it sample values using the
interpolation function

𝑥𝑎 (𝑡) may be expressed as

𝑛
Where 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑥𝑎 (𝑛𝑇) ≡ 𝑥(𝑛) are the samples of 𝑥𝑎 (𝑡)
𝐹𝑠

The minimum sampling rate of a signal to


recover it from its sample value is
𝑭𝑵 = 𝟐𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐𝑩 is called the
Nyquist rate.

23
Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signal
Quantization: The process of converting a discrete-time continuous-amplitude signal into a digital
signal by expressing each sample value as a finite (instead of an infinite) number of digits is called
quantization.
Quantization error: The error introduced in representing the continuous-valued signal by a finite
set of discrete value levels is called quantization error or quantization noise.
The quantization error is a sequence 𝑒𝑞 𝑛 defined as the difference between the quantized value
(𝑥𝑞 𝑛 = 𝑄[𝑥(𝑛)]) and the actual sample value-
𝑒𝑞 𝑛 = 𝑥𝑞 𝑛 − 𝑥(𝑛)

Resolution: The values allowed in the digital signal are called the quantization levels, whereas the
distance ∆⁡between two successive quantization levels is called the quantization step size or resolution.
The quantization error eq (n) in round ing is limited to the range of − ∆ 2 to +∆ 2 , that is,
∆ ∆ In other words, the instantaneous quantization error cannot exceed
− ≤ 𝑒𝑞 (𝑛) ≤ half of the quantization step.
2 2

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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Quantization of Continuous-Amplitude Signal (Cont.)
If 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 and 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 represent the Illustrating the quantization process for the function:
minimum and maximum value of x(n)
and L is the number of quantization
levels, then
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛
∆=
𝐿−1
𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 is known as the dynamic
range of signal

For the example in Fig,


𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 =1 and 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0, 𝐿 = 11
So, ∆= 0.1

Note that if the dynamic range is fixed,


in creasing the number of quantization
levels, L results in a decrease o f the
quantization step size. Thus the
quantization error decreases and the
accuracy o f the quantizer increases.

25
Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Quantization of Sinusoidal Signal

The analog sinusoidal signal, 𝑥𝑎 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos Ω0 𝑡


The discrete sinusoidal signal, x n = 𝑥𝑎 (𝑛𝑇)

26 Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Quantization of Sinusoidal Signal (Cont.)

𝐴+𝐴 2𝐴
Here, 𝑥𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −𝐴⁡and 𝑥𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴,⁡If the quantizer has b bit accuracy, ∆= 2𝑏
= 2𝑏

27
Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Quantization of Sinusoidal Signal (Cont.)

This implies that the SQNR increases approximately 6 dB for every bit added to the word length , that
is. for each doubling of the quantization levels. Although this formula was derived for sinusoidal
signals, but similar result holds for every signal whose dynamic range spans the range of the quantizer.
This relationship is extremely important because it dictates the number of bits required by a specific
application to assure a given signal-to noise ratio. For example, most compact disc players use a
sampling frequency of 44.1 kHz and 16-bit sample resolution , which implies a SQNR of more than
96 dB.
28
Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Example 1.4.4 (Proakis)

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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Example 1.4.4 (Proakis)- Cont.

Since, 𝐹𝑠 = 5⁡𝐾𝐻𝑧,⁡the folding frequency is 𝐹𝑠 /2 = 2.5⁡𝐾𝐻𝑧. This is the maximum frequency that
can be represented uniquely by the sampled signal. The frequency 𝐹1 is less than 𝐹𝑠 /2 and thus is not
affected by aliasing. However the other two frequencies are below the folding frequency and they will
be changed by the aliasing effect.

30 Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
Example 1.4.4 (Proakis)- Cont.

****
Solve the exercise problems related to the topics discussed in the
lecture.

31 Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC
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Lecture materials on "Introduction of Digital Signal Processing" By- Mohammed abdul kader, Assistant Professor, EEE, IIUC

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