‭2014 Qp‬

‭What is a Computer Network? Explain the terms LAN, MAN, WAN.‬

‭ ‬‭computer network‬‭is a collection of interconnected‬‭devices that communicate and share resources. Networks‬
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‭can vary in size and complexity, facilitating data transfer, resource sharing, and communication among users.‬

‭Types of Networks‬

‭1.‬ L
‭ AN (Local Area Network)‬‭: Covers a small geographic‬‭area, such as a home or office. It allows‬
‭high-speed data transfer between devices within close proximity, typically using wired connections. LANs‬
‭are usually privately owned and managed.‬

‭2.‬ M
‭ AN (Metropolitan Area Network)‬‭: Spans a larger area‬‭than LANs, typically covering a city or large‬
‭campus. MANs connect multiple LANs, providing faster data transmission than WANs but slower than‬
‭LANs due to greater distances involved .‬

‭3.‬ W
‭ AN (Wide Area Network)‬‭: Encompasses a vast geographic‬‭area, often connecting multiple MANs and‬
‭LANs across cities or countries. The internet is the most notable example of a WAN, characterized by‬
‭lower data transfer speeds compared to LAN and MAN due to its expansive nature .‬

‭Explain DSI Reference Model in Detail.‬

‭ he‬‭DSI (Distributed Systems Interconnection) Reference‬‭Model‬‭is a conceptual framework that standardizes‬
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‭how different components of distributed systems interact. It is structured into layers, each serving specific‬
‭functions:‬

‭1.‬ A
‭ pplication Layer‬‭: This top layer provides network‬‭services directly to end-user applications, facilitating‬
‭communication and data exchange between users.‬

‭2.‬ T
‭ ransport Layer‬‭: Responsible for end-to-end communication‬‭and error recovery, ensuring reliable data‬
‭transfer between systems.‬

‭3.‬ N
‭ etwork Layer‬‭: Manages the routing of data packets‬‭across the network, determining optimal paths for‬
‭data transmission.‬

‭4.‬ D
‭ ata Link Layer‬‭: Handles the node-to-node transfer‬‭of data and error detection/correction during‬
‭transmission over physical links.‬

‭5.‬ P
‭ hysical Layer‬‭: The lowest layer that defines the‬‭hardware specifications for transmitting raw bits over‬
‭physical media.‬

‭ his model promotes interoperability among diverse systems by establishing common protocols at each layer,‬
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‭enabling seamless communication across different platforms.‬

‭What is Multiplexing? Explain Different Multiplexing Techniques.‬

‭ ultiplexing‬‭is a technique used in telecommunications to combine multiple signals into one signal over a‬
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‭shared medium. This process optimizes the use of available bandwidth and reduces the number of physical‬
‭connections needed.‬

‭Types of Multiplexing Techniques:‬

‭1.‬ T
‭ ime Division Multiplexing (TDM)‬‭: Allocates distinct‬‭time slots for each signal on the same channel,‬
‭allowing multiple signals to share the same transmission medium without interference.‬

‭2.‬ F
‭ requency Division Multiplexing (FDM)‬‭: Divides the‬‭available bandwidth into separate frequency bands‬
‭for each signal, enabling simultaneous transmission without overlap.‬

‭3.‬ W
‭ avelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)‬‭: A form of‬‭FDM used in fiber optics where different‬
‭wavelengths (colors) of light carry separate signals concurrently over the same fiber.‬

‭4.‬ C
‭ ode Division Multiple Access (CDMA)‬‭: Assigns unique‬‭codes to each signal so they can coexist on‬
‭the same frequency band without interference, commonly used in mobile communications.‬

‭ hese techniques enhance communication efficiency by maximizing resource utilization while minimizing costs‬
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‭associated with infrastructure.‬

‭Define ISDN. Explain ISDN Architecture for Home Use.(not imp)‬

I‭SDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)‬‭is a digital‬‭communication standard that facilitates simultaneous‬
‭voice and data transmission over traditional telephone lines. It provides higher quality and faster connections‬
‭compared to analog systems.‬

‭ISDN Architecture for Home Use:‬

‭1.‬ B
‭ asic Rate Interface (BRI)‬‭: Comprises two B-channels‬‭for voice/data (each 64 Kbps) and one D-channel‬
‭for signaling (16 Kbps). This configuration supports multiple simultaneous calls or data sessions at home.‬

‭2.‬ T
‭ erminal Equipment‬‭: Devices such as telephones or‬‭computers connect to ISDN through terminal‬
‭adapters or ISDN-compatible devices.‬

‭3.‬ I‭SDN Switches‬‭: These manage call routing and signaling‬‭between different users on the network,‬
‭ensuring efficient communication.‬

‭4.‬ N
‭ etwork Termination‬‭: The point where the ISDN line‬‭connects to the home network; it may include‬
‭additional features like integrated routers or firewalls for enhanced functionality.‬

I‭SDN's architecture enables homes to utilize digital services effectively while supporting various applications like‬
‭video conferencing and high-speed internet access.‬

‭Explain Guided Transmission Media in Brief.‬

‭ uided transmission media‬‭refers to physical pathways‬‭that guide electromagnetic signals from one point to‬
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‭another. These media are essential for wired communication systems and include:‬

‭1.‬ T
‭ wisted Pair Cable‬‭: Consists of pairs of insulated‬‭copper wires twisted together to reduce‬
‭electromagnetic interference; commonly used in telephone networks and local area networks (LANs).‬
 ‭2.‬ C
‭ oaxial Cable‬‭: Comprises a central conductor surrounded by insulation and an outer conductive shield; it‬
‭offers higher bandwidth and is used for cable television and broadband internet services.‬

‭3.‬ F
‭ iber Optic Cable‬‭: Utilizes glass or plastic fibers‬‭to transmit light signals over long distances with minimal‬
‭loss; it supports high-speed data transmission and is increasingly used in telecommunications‬
‭infrastructure.‬

‭ uided media provide reliable communication channels with predictable performance characteristics compared to‬
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‭unguided media like radio waves.‬

‭Explain CSMA Protocol along with CSMA/CD.‬

‭ arrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)‬‭is a network‬‭protocol that controls how nodes on a shared medium‬
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‭access the channel without collisions:‬

‭1.‬ ‭CSMA Mechanism‬‭:‬

‭ ‬ ‭Nodes listen to the channel before transmitting.‬

○
‭○‬ ‭If the channel is clear, they transmit their data.‬
‭○‬ ‭If the channel is busy, they wait until it becomes free before attempting to send their data again.‬
‭2.‬ ‭CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)‬‭:‬

‭‬ A
○ ‭ n enhancement of CSMA where nodes continue monitoring the channel during transmission.‬
‭○‬ ‭If two nodes transmit simultaneously causing a collision, they detect it immediately.‬
‭○‬ ‭Upon detecting a collision, both nodes stop transmitting and wait for a random time before‬
‭attempting retransmission, reducing chances of repeated collisions.‬

‭ his protocol efficiently manages access in shared networks like Ethernet, minimizing delays while maximizing‬
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‭throughput under varying load conditions.‬

‭Explain Controlled Access Protocols in MAC Layer.‬

‭ ontrolled access protocols are mechanisms within the Media Access Control (MAC) layer that regulate how‬
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‭devices on a shared communication medium gain access to transmit data without collisions:‬

‭1.‬ P
‭ olling Protocols‬‭: A central controller polls each‬‭device in turn to see if it has data to send; only polled‬
‭devices can transmit, reducing chances of collisions significantly.‬

‭2.‬ T
‭ oken Passing Protocols‬‭: A token circulates around‬‭the network; only the device holding the token can‬
‭transmit data. This method ensures orderly access but requires additional overhead for token‬
‭management.‬

‭3.‬ R
‭ eservation Protocols‬‭: Devices request permission‬‭from a central controller before transmitting; this‬
‭approach allows devices to reserve bandwidth in advance for their transmissions based on expected‬
‭traffic patterns.‬

‭ hese controlled access methods enhance efficiency by managing how multiple devices share bandwidth while‬
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‭minimizing collisions and ensuring fair access among users on the network.‬

‭ hy is Error Detection Mechanism Needed? Explain Internet‬

W
‭Checksum for Error Detection.‬
‭ rror detection mechanisms are essential in communication systems to ensure data integrity during transmission‬
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‭over unreliable channels:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Significance of Error Detection‬‭:‬

‭‬ D
○ ‭ etects errors introduced by noise or interference during transmission.‬
‭○‬ ‭Prevents corrupted data from being processed by receiving applications.‬
‭○‬ ‭Enhances overall reliability of communication protocols by allowing retransmission of erroneous‬
‭messages.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Internet Checksum Method‬‭:‬

‭‬
○ ‭ simple error detection scheme used primarily in TCP/IP protocols.‬
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‭○‬ ‭The sender calculates a checksum value by summing all 16-bit words in the message.‬
‭○‬ ‭The resulting sum is complemented (inverted) and appended to the message as checksum.‬
‭○‬ ‭The receiver recalculates the checksum upon receipt; if it matches the transmitted checksum, no‬
‭errors are detected; otherwise, an error has occurred requiring retransmission.‬

‭ his method provides basic error detection capabilities suitable for many types of digital communications while‬
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‭being computationally efficient .‬

‭Explain Point-to-Point Protocol.‬

‭ he‬‭Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)‬‭is a widely used‬‭method for establishing direct connections between two‬
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‭network nodes:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Features of PPP‬‭:‬

‭‬ S
○ ‭ upports various network layer protocols including IP.‬
‭○‬ ‭Provides authentication mechanisms such as PAP (Password Authentication Protocol) and CHAP‬
‭(Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol).‬
‭○‬ ‭Facilitates error detection through checksums ensuring reliable communication.‬
‭2.‬ W
‭ orking Mechanism‬‭:‬

‭ ‬ I‭nitiation involves establishing a link between two devices using LCP (Link Control Protocol).‬
○
‭○‬ ‭After link establishment, PPP negotiates configuration parameters like maximum frame size.‬
‭○‬ ‭Data encapsulation occurs where higher-layer protocols are framed within PPP packets before‬
‭transmission.‬

‭ PP is commonly utilized in dial-up connections and direct serial links due to its simplicity and versatility across‬
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‭different types of networks .‬

‭Explain Go-Back-N ARQ Protocol.‬

‭ he‬‭Go-Back-N Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ)‬‭protocol‬‭is an error control method used in networking that‬
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‭allows multiple frames to be sent before needing an acknowledgment:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Mechanism Overview‬‭:‬

‭‬ T
○ ‭ he sender transmits several frames sequentially up to a predetermined window size NN.‬
‭○‬ ‭Each frame has a unique sequence number allowing identification during acknowledgment‬
‭processes.‬
‭2.‬ E
‭ rror Handling Process‬‭:‬
 ‭○‬ I‭f an error occurs in any frame within the window, all subsequent frames must be resent starting‬
‭from that erroneous frame.‬
‭○‬ ‭The receiver only acknowledges frames received correctly; if frame kk fails verification, it will not‬
‭acknowledge any frames after kk.‬

‭ his approach ensures reliable delivery but can lead to inefficiencies if packet loss occurs frequently since all‬
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‭subsequent frames must be resent even if they were transmitted correctly .‬

‭Explain Shortest Path Routing.‬

‭ hortest path routing refers to algorithms used in networking to determine optimal paths for data packets from‬
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‭source to destination:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Concept Overview‬‭:‬

‭‬ A
○ ‭ ims at minimizing total path cost defined by metrics such as distance or time taken.‬
‭○‬ ‭Commonly used in routing protocols like OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) which utilizes link-state‬
‭algorithms.‬
‭2.‬ A
‭ lgorithms Used‬‭:‬

‭○‬ D ‭ ijkstra’s Algorithm‬‭: Iteratively selects nodes with‬‭minimum cumulative distance from source‬
‭until all nodes are processed.‬
‭○‬ ‭Bellman-Ford Algorithm‬‭: Handles graphs with negative‬‭weights by relaxing edges repeatedly‬
‭until no further improvements can be made.‬

‭ hortest path routing enhances network efficiency by ensuring that packets traverse optimal routes while‬
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‭reducing congestion .‬

‭Explain Leaky-Bucket Algorithm for Congestion Control.‬

‭ he‬‭Leaky-Bucket algorithm‬‭is a traffic shaping mechanism‬‭employed in networking to control congestion by‬
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‭regulating data flow:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Mechanism Description‬‭:‬

‭○‬ V
‭ isualized as a bucket with holes at its base allowing water (data packets) to leak out at a constant‬
‭rate regardless of incoming flow.‬
‭2.‬ F
‭ unctionality‬‭:‬

‭○‬ I‭ncoming packets are added into the bucket until it reaches capacity; excess packets are‬
‭discarded when overflow occurs.‬
‭○‬ ‭The outgoing rate remains steady even if bursts occur intermittently which smoothens traffic flow‬
‭into the network.‬

‭ his algorithm effectively mitigates congestion by preventing sudden spikes in traffic that could overwhelm‬
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‭network resources .‬

‭Write a note on TIP & UDP protocols.‬

‭TIP Protocol‬

‭ he TIP protocol stands for "Transaction Internet Protocol," designed primarily for managing transactions over‬
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‭internet-based systems efficiently:‬
 ‭●‬ I‭t provides mechanisms for ensuring reliability during transaction processing through acknowledgments‬
‭and retries.‬
‭●‬ ‭TIP supports various transaction types such as financial exchanges or database updates while‬
‭maintaining consistency across distributed systems.‬

‭UDP Protocol‬

‭The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core protocols within the Internet Protocol suite:‬

‭●‬ U ‭ nlike TCP, UDP operates without establishing connections beforehand; it sends messages called‬
‭datagrams without guarantees on delivery or order.‬
‭●‬ ‭UDP offers minimal overhead making it suitable for applications requiring speed over reliability such as‬
‭video streaming or online gaming where real-time performance is critical.‬

‭ oth TIP and UDP serve distinct purposes within networking environments—TIP focuses on transaction integrity‬
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‭while UDP emphasizes speed and efficiency.‬

‭ARPANET‬
‭ARPANET was one of the first operational packet-switching networks developed by DARPA in 1969:‬
‭●‬ I‭t laid foundational concepts for modern internet technologies through its pioneering use of‬
‭packet switching instead of circuit switching.‬
‭●‬ ‭Initially connecting four universities, ARPANET expanded rapidly leading to innovations such as‬
‭email protocols which remain integral today .‬

‭Packet Switching‬
‭ acket switching is a method where messages are broken into smaller packets transmitted‬
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‭independently across networks:‬
‭●‬ E ‭ ach packet may take different paths based on current network conditions optimizing resource‬
‭usage effectively compared with traditional circuit-switched methods.‬
‭●‬ ‭This technique enhances resilience against failures since individual packets can reroute‬
‭dynamically improving overall communication reliability .‬

‭ALDHA‬
‭ LDHA stands for "Asynchronous Link Data Handling Architecture," focusing on managing‬
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‭asynchronous communications efficiently:‬
‭●‬ I‭t supports diverse applications including real-time communications while maintaining low‬
‭latency through effective buffering strategies.‬
‭●‬ ‭ALDHA enables seamless integration with existing networking infrastructures enhancing‬
‭compatibility across various platforms .‬

‭CRC‬
‭Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is an error-detecting code used widely in digital networks:‬
‭●‬ I‭t involves appending redundancy bits calculated from message content enabling receivers to‬
‭check integrity upon receipt easily.‬
‭●‬ ‭CRC’s effectiveness lies in its ability to detect common errors caused by noise during‬
‭transmission ensuring high reliability across various communication protocols‬
 ‭2017 Qp‬

‭ hat is a Computer Network? Explain the Applications of Computer‬

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‭Networks‬
‭ ‬‭computer network‬‭is a collection of interconnected‬‭computers and devices that communicate with each other‬
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‭to share resources, information, and services. Networks can vary in size from small local area networks (LANs) to‬
‭vast wide area networks (WANs) like the internet.‬

‭Applications of Computer Networks:‬

‭-‬ ‭ ommunication‬‭: Enables email, instant messaging, and‬‭video conferencing, facilitating real-time‬
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‭interaction among users globally.‬
‭-‬ ‭Resource Sharing‬‭: Allows multiple users to share devices‬‭such as printers and storage systems,‬
‭enhancing efficiency and reducing costs.‬
‭-‬ ‭Data Management‬‭: Supports centralized data storage‬‭and management systems, making it easier to‬
‭access and manage data across different locations.‬
‭-‬ ‭Remote Access‬‭: Provides remote access capabilities,‬‭allowing users to connect to networks from various‬
‭locations, which is crucial for telecommuting.‬
‭-‬ ‭Entertainment‬‭: Facilitates streaming services, online‬‭gaming, and social media platforms, creating a‬
‭connected entertainment ecosystem.‬

‭Explain ISDN Architecture. List Out Different Types of ISDN Interfaces‬

‭ he‬‭Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)‬‭architecture‬‭provides a framework for digital communication‬
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‭over traditional telephone lines. It enables simultaneous transmission of voice and data through digital channels.‬

‭Key Components of ISDN Architecture:‬

‭ .‬ T
1 ‭ erminal Equipment (TE)‬‭: Devices that connect to the‬‭ISDN network, such as telephones or computers.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Network Termination (NT)‬‭: Interfaces between user‬‭equipment and the ISDN network, ensuring‬
‭compatibility and managing signal processing.‬
‭3.‬ ‭ISDN Switch‬‭: Manages connections between different‬‭ISDN users for both voice and data traffic.‬

‭Types of ISDN Interfaces:‬

‭-‬ ‭ asic Rate Interface (BRI)‬‭: Comprises two B channels‬‭(64 Kbps each) for user data and one D channel‬
B
‭(16 Kbps) for signaling. BRI is suitable for residential and small business use.‬
‭-‬ ‭Primary Rate Interface (PRI)‬‭: Consists of either 23‬‭B channels in North America or 30 B channels in‬
‭Europe, along with one D channel. PRI is used by larger organizations requiring higher bandwidth.‬
-‭ ‬ ‭U Interface‬‭: Connects the NT to the network exchange‬‭using two wires.‬
‭-‬ ‭T Interface‬‭: Connects TE to a terminal adapter for‬‭digital communication.‬
‭-‬ ‭S Interface‬‭: A four-wire bus connecting consumer devices‬‭to the ISDN network.‬

I‭SDN architecture enhances communication efficiency by allowing multiple services over a single line while‬
‭maintaining high-quality transmission.‬

‭Explain Guided Transmission Media in Detail‬

‭ uided transmission media‬‭refers to physical pathways‬‭that guide electromagnetic signals from one point to‬
G
‭another in telecommunications. These media are essential for reliable wired communication systems.‬

‭1.‬ ‭Twisted Pair Cable‬‭:‬

 -‭ ‬ ‭ omposed of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.‬
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‭-‬ ‭Reduces electromagnetic interference and is commonly used in telephone networks and LANs.‬
‭-‬ ‭Available in shielded twisted pair (STP) for better protection against interference or unshielded‬
‭twisted pair (UTP) for cost-effective solutions.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Coaxial Cable‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ onsists of a central conductor surrounded by insulation, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating‬
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‭layer.‬
‭-‬ ‭Offers higher bandwidth compared to twisted pair cables and is used for cable television and‬
‭broadband internet services.‬
‭-‬ ‭Provides better resistance to signal interference due to its shielding.‬

‭3.‬ ‭Fiber Optic Cable‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ tilizes thin strands of glass or plastic fibers to transmit light signals over long distances with‬
U
‭minimal loss.‬
‭-‬ ‭Supports high-speed data transmission suitable for internet backbones and high-demand‬
‭applications like video conferencing.‬
‭-‬ ‭Offers immunity to electromagnetic interference and higher bandwidth capabilities compared to‬
‭copper cables.‬

‭ uided media provide predictable performance characteristics essential for maintaining data integrity during‬
G
‭transmission while ensuring efficient use of available bandwidth.‬

‭What is Flow Control? Discuss the Go-back N Protocol‬

‭ low control‬‭is a technique used in data communication‬‭that manages the rate at which data is transmitted‬
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‭between sender and receiver. Its primary goal is to prevent overwhelming the receiver with too much data at‬
‭once, ensuring efficient data transfer without loss or overflow.‬

‭Go-back N Protocol:‬
‭ he Go-back N Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) protocol is a flow control method that allows multiple frames to‬
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‭be sent before needing an acknowledgment:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Mechanism Overview‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ he sender can transmit several frames up to a specified window size $$N$$.‬

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‭-‬ ‭Each frame is assigned a unique sequence number that helps identify it during acknowledgment‬
‭processes.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Error Handling Process‬‭:‬

‭-‬ I‭f an error occurs in any frame within the window, all subsequent frames must be resent starting‬
‭from the erroneous frame.‬
‭-‬ ‭The receiver acknowledges only those frames that are received correctly; if frame $$k$$ fails‬
‭verification, it will not acknowledge any frames after $$k$$.‬

‭3.‬ ‭Efficiency Considerations‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ his approach can lead to inefficiencies if packet loss occurs frequently since all subsequent‬
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‭frames must be resent even if they were transmitted correctly.‬
 ‭-‬ ‭ owever, it allows for efficient utilization of bandwidth when the error rate is low since multiple‬
H
‭frames can be sent before waiting for acknowledgments.‬

‭ he Go-back N protocol balances throughput with reliability by allowing multiple transmissions while still providing‬
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‭mechanisms for error recovery in a systematic manner.‬

‭Discuss Data Link Layer Design Issues in Detail‬

‭ he‬‭data link layer‬‭is crucial in networking as it‬‭provides node-to-node data transfer across physical links while‬
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‭managing error detection, flow control, and framing. Several design issues must be addressed at this layer:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Framing‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ raming involves dividing the stream of bits into manageable units called frames.‬
F
‭-‬ ‭Different techniques like byte-oriented or bit-oriented framing are used based on the protocol‬
‭requirements.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Error Detection and Correction‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ echanisms are needed to detect errors introduced during transmission due to noise or‬
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‭interference.‬
‭-‬ ‭Techniques such as checksums, cyclic redundancy checks (CRC), or automatic repeat requests‬
‭(ARQ) are employed for error handling.‬

‭3.‬ ‭Flow Control‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ low control prevents the sender from overwhelming the receiver by regulating the rate of data‬
F
‭transmission.‬
‭-‬ ‭Methods include stop-and-wait ARQ, sliding window protocols like Go-back N or Selective Repeat‬
‭that allow multiple frames in transit before requiring acknowledgment.‬

‭4.‬ ‭Medium Access Control (MAC)‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ AC protocols determine how multiple devices share the same communication medium without‬
M
‭collisions.‬
‭-‬ ‭Techniques include contention-based methods like ALOHA or CSMA/CD and controlled access‬
‭methods like token passing or polling.‬

‭5.‬ ‭Link Layer Addressing‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ ach device on a local network requires a unique identifier known as a MAC address for proper‬
E
‭routing within the same network segment.‬

‭6.‬ ‭Link Layer Protocols‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ arious protocols operate at this layer such as Ethernet for wired connections or Wi-Fi for wireless‬
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‭communications, each with its specifications regarding framing, addressing, and error handling.‬

‭ ddressing these design issues ensures reliable communication over physical networks while optimizing‬
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‭performance across diverse applications and environments.‬
 ‭2019 QP‬

‭ hat is a Computer Network? Explain Applications of Computer‬

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‭Networks. Explain OSI Reference Model with a Neat Diagram.‬
‭ ‬‭computer network‬‭is a collection of interconnected‬‭computers and devices that communicate with each other‬
A
‭to share resources and information. Networks can be wired or wireless and vary in size from small local area‬
‭networks (LANs) to vast global networks like the internet.‬

‭Applications of Computer Networks:‬

‭1.‬ C ‭ ommunication‬‭: Facilitates email, instant messaging,‬‭and video conferencing, allowing real-time‬
‭interaction among users.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Resource Sharing‬‭: Enables sharing of devices such‬‭as printers and storage systems, improving‬
‭efficiency and reducing costs.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Remote Access‬‭: Provides access to files and applications‬‭from various locations, essential for‬
‭telecommuting.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Data Management‬‭: Supports centralized data storage,‬‭making it easier to manage and access‬
‭information across different locations.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Education‬‭: Enhances online learning experiences through‬‭virtual classrooms and access to educational‬
‭resources.‬

‭ omputer networks play a crucial role in various sectors, including healthcare for patient record sharing,‬
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‭education for remote learning, and businesses for operational efficiency.‬

‭OSI Reference Model‬

‭ he‬‭Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)‬‭model is a‬‭conceptual framework used to understand network‬
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‭interactions in seven layers:‬

‭ .‬
1 ‭ hysical Layer‬‭: Deals with the physical connection‬‭between devices, including cables and switches.‬
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‭2.‬ ‭Data Link Layer‬‭: Responsible for node-to-node data‬‭transfer and error detection/correction.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Network Layer‬‭: Manages routing of data packets between‬‭devices across different networks.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Transport Layer‬‭: Ensures reliable data transfer between‬‭end systems through error recovery and flow‬
‭control.‬
‭5.‬ ‭Session Layer‬‭: Manages sessions between applications,‬‭establishing, maintaining, and terminating‬
‭connections.‬
‭ .‬ ‭Presentation Layer‬‭: Translates data between the application‬‭layer and the network format; handles‬
6
‭encryption and compression.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Application Layer‬‭: Provides network services directly‬‭to user applications, such as email or file transfer.‬

‭Diagram of OSI Model‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Application Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Presentation Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Session Layer |‬
‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Transport Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Network Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Data Link Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Physical Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭ he OSI model helps standardize communication functions to enable interoperability among different systems‬
T
‭and technologies.‬

‭ hat is Transmission Media? Explain the Following Guided‬

W
‭Transmission Media: i) Co-axial Cable ii) Optical Fiber‬
‭ ransmission media‬‭refers to the physical pathways‬‭that connect computers and devices in a network, allowing‬
T
‭data transmission. They can be classified into guided (wired) media and unguided (wireless) media.‬

‭i) Co-axial Cable‬

‭ o-axial cable consists of a central conductor surrounded by insulation, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating‬
C
‭layer. It is widely used for cable television and broadband internet connections.‬

‭-‬ ‭Structure‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ I‭nner conductor: Transmits signals.‬

‭-‬ ‭Insulation: Separates the inner conductor from the outer shield.‬
‭-‬ ‭Outer shield: Reduces electromagnetic interference.‬

‭-‬ ‭Advantages‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ igh bandwidth capacity compared to twisted pair cables.‬

H
‭-‬ ‭Better resistance to signal interference due to its shielding.‬

‭Diagram of Co-axial Cable‬

‭+-------------------------+‬

‭| Outer Jacket |‬

‭+-------------------------+‬

‭| Shielding (Metal) |‬

‭+-------------------------+‬
 ‭| Insulation |‬

‭+-------------------------+‬

‭| Inner Conductor |‬

‭+-------------------------+‬

‭ii) Optical Fiber‬

‭ ptical fiber consists of thin strands of glass or plastic that transmit data as light signals. This technology is used‬
O
‭for high-speed data transmission over long distances.‬

‭-‬ ‭Structure‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ ore: The central part that carries light signals.‬

C
‭-‬ ‭Cladding: Surrounds the core, reflecting light back into it.‬
‭-‬ ‭Jacket: Protects the fiber from environmental damage.‬

‭-‬ ‭Advantages‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ ery high bandwidth capabilities.‬

V
‭-‬ ‭Immune to electromagnetic interference.‬
‭-‬ ‭Low signal attenuation over long distances.‬

‭Diagram of Optical Fiber‬

‭+-------------------------+‬

‭| Jacket |‬

‭+-------------------------+‬

‭| Cladding |‬

‭+-------------------------+‬

‭| Core |‬

‭+-------------------------+‬

‭ oth co-axial cables and optical fibers are essential components of modern communication networks, providing‬
B
‭reliable connections for various applications.‬

‭ xplain Error Detection Using CRC with Example. What is ARQ? Explain‬
E
‭Stop and Wait ARQ.‬

‭Error Detection Using CRC‬

‭ yclic Redundancy Check (CRC) is an error-detecting code used in digital networks to detect accidental changes‬
C
‭to raw data during transmission. It involves appending a short fixed-length binary sequence (the CRC) to the end‬
‭of a message.‬
‭Example:‬
11010011101100‬
‭1.‬ ‭Consider the message‬‭ ‭.‬
‭ .‬ U
2 G(x) = x^4 + x^3 + x^2‬‭
‭ se a generator polynomial‬‭ + 1‬‭(binary‬‭
11001‬
‭).‬
‭3.‬ ‭Perform binary division of the message by the generator polynomial.‬
‭4.‬ ‭The remainder becomes the CRC code appended to the original message.‬

I‭f the received message does not match the expected CRC value upon recalculation at the receiver's end, an‬
‭error is detected.‬

‭What is ARQ?‬
‭ utomatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) is an error-control protocol for reliable data transmission that uses‬
A
‭acknowledgments (ACKs) and timeouts to ensure successful delivery of packets.‬

‭Stop-and-Wait ARQ‬
‭In Stop-and-Wait ARQ:‬

‭1.‬ T ‭ he sender transmits one frame at a time and waits for an acknowledgment from the receiver before‬
‭sending the next frame.‬
‭2.‬ ‭If an acknowledgment is not received within a specified timeout period, the sender retransmits the same‬
‭frame.‬

‭Process:‬
F1‬
‭1.‬ ‭Sender sends frame‬‭ ‭.‬
A1‬
‭2.‬ ‭Waits for ACK‬‭ ‭.‬
A1‬‭is received within timeout, sends frame‬‭
‭3.‬ ‭If‬‭ F2‬
‭.‬
A1‬‭received within timeout, retransmits‬‭
‭4.‬ ‭If no‬‭ F1‬
‭.‬

‭This method ensures reliability but can lead to inefficiencies due to idle time while waiting for acknowledgments.‬

‭ hat is Flow Control? Explain Flow Control Using Go-back-N Protocol.‬

W
‭Explain ALOHA Concept in Detail.‬

‭Flow Control‬
‭ low control is a technique used in networking to manage the rate of data transmission between sender and‬
F
‭receiver, ensuring that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver with too much data at once.‬

‭Flow Control Using Go-back-N Protocol‬

‭ he Go-back-N Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) protocol allows multiple frames to be sent before needing an‬
T
‭acknowledgment but requires retransmission of all frames starting from an erroneous frame:‬

‭ .‬ T
1 ‭ he sender can transmit several frames up to a specified window size $$N$$.‬
‭2.‬ ‭If an error occurs in any frame within this window, all subsequent frames must be resent starting from that‬
‭erroneous frame.‬
‭3.‬ ‭The receiver acknowledges only those frames that are received correctly; if frame $$k$$ fails verification,‬
‭it will not acknowledge any frames after $$k$$.‬

‭ his approach balances throughput with reliability but can lead to inefficiencies if packet loss occurs frequently‬
T
‭since all subsequent frames must be resent even if they were transmitted correctly.‬
‭ALOHA Concept‬
‭ LOHA is one of the simplest networking protocols designed for wireless communication where multiple users‬
A
‭share a common channel:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Pure ALOHA‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ sers transmit whenever they have data to send without checking if the channel is free.‬
U
‭-‬ ‭If two users transmit simultaneously, a collision occurs, causing both transmissions to fail.‬
‭-‬ ‭Each user waits a random amount of time before attempting retransmission after detecting a‬
‭collision.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Slotted ALOHA‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ ime is divided into discrete slots; users can only transmit at the beginning of these slots.‬
T
‭-‬ ‭This reduces collisions because transmissions are synchronized within time slots.‬
‭-‬ ‭The maximum throughput for Slotted ALOHA is about 37%, compared to about 18% for Pure‬
‭ALOHA due to reduced collision chances.‬

‭ALOHA protocols are foundational in understanding random access methods in networking environments.‬

‭ xplain IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Standard. Explain the Following: i) Polling‬

E
‭ii) Token Passing‬

‭IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Standard‬

‭ he IEEE 802.3 standard defines the physical layer and media access control (MAC) layer specifications for‬
T
‭wired Ethernet networks:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Physical Layer Specifications‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ efines standards for cabling (e.g., twisted pair or fiber optic).‬

D
‭-‬ ‭Specifies signaling methods for transmitting bits over these mediums.‬

‭2.‬ ‭MAC Layer Specifications‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ ses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol for managing‬
U
‭access to shared communication channels.‬
‭-‬ ‭Allows multiple devices on a network segment to share bandwidth while minimizing collisions‬
‭through listening before transmitting.‬

‭i) Polling‬
‭ olling is a method where a central controller or master device sequentially checks each connected device (or‬
P
‭slave device) on the network for data transmission readiness:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ he master sends requests or "polls" each device one at a time.‬

T
‭-‬ ‭Only polled devices can transmit data; others must wait their turn.‬
‭-‬ ‭This method reduces collisions but can introduce delays if many devices are connected since each device‬
‭must wait its turn.‬

‭ii) Token Passing‬

‭ oken passing is another method used in networking where a special packet called a "token" circulates around‬
T
‭the network:‬
 ‭-‬ ‭ nly the device holding the token can transmit data; this prevents collisions since only one device‬
O
‭transmits at any given time.‬
-‭ ‬ ‭After transmitting its data, the device passes the token to the next device in line.‬
‭-‬ ‭This method ensures fair access among devices but requires management of token circulation and‬
‭recovery if lost or damaged.‬

‭ oth polling and token passing are effective methods for managing access in networks but serve different use‬
B
‭cases depending on network requirements and configurations.‬

‭2018 QP‬

‭Explain TCP/IP Reference Model with Diagram.‬

‭ he‬‭TCP/IP reference model‬‭is a foundational framework‬‭for understanding how data is transmitted over‬
T
‭networks. It was developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and consists of four layers, each‬
‭responsible for specific aspects of network communication.‬

‭Layers of the TCP/IP Model:‬

‭1.‬ L
‭ ink Layer‬‭: Also known as the Network Access Layer,‬‭it handles the physical transmission of data over‬
‭various types of network media. This layer includes protocols that define how data packets are encoded‬
‭and transmitted over the physical medium.‬

‭2.‬ I‭nternet Layer‬‭: This layer is responsible for logical‬‭addressing and routing of data packets across‬
‭networks. The primary protocol at this layer is the Internet Protocol (IP), which facilitates communication‬
‭between different networks.‬

‭3.‬ T
‭ ransport Layer‬‭: This layer ensures reliable end-to-end‬‭communication between devices. It manages‬
‭error detection and correction, as well as flow control. Key protocols in this layer include Transmission‬
‭Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).‬

‭4.‬ A
‭ pplication Layer‬‭: The topmost layer that provides‬‭network services directly to user applications. It‬
‭encompasses various protocols such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS, facilitating different types of‬
‭communication over the internet.‬

‭Diagram of TCP/IP Model‬

‭+------------------------+‬

‭| Application Layer |‬

‭+------------------------+‬

‭| Transport Layer |‬

‭+------------------------+‬

‭| Internet Layer |‬

‭+------------------------+‬

‭| Link Layer |‬
‭+------------------------+‬

‭ he TCP/IP model simplifies networking concepts by combining functionalities into fewer layers compared to the‬
T
‭OSI model, making it widely adopted in real-world networking scenarios.‬

‭What is Topology? With Diagram Explain Different Types of Topologies.‬

‭ opology‬‭refers to the arrangement or layout of different‬‭elements (nodes) in a network. It defines how devices‬
T
‭are interconnected and how data flows between them. Understanding network topology is essential for designing‬
‭efficient networks.‬

‭Types of Network Topologies:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Bus Topology‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ ll devices share a single communication line (the bus).‬

A
‭-‬ ‭Data travels in both directions along the bus.‬
‭-‬ ‭Simple to implement but can lead to collisions if multiple devices transmit simultaneously.‬

‭Diagram:‬
‭Device1 ---- Device2 ---- Device3‬

‭|‬

‭Bus‬

‭2.‬ ‭Star Topology‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ ll devices are connected to a central hub or switch.‬

A
‭-‬ ‭Easy to manage and troubleshoot; if one connection fails, others remain unaffected.‬

‭Diagram:‬
‭Hub‬

‭/ | \‬

‭D1 D2 D3‬

‭3.‬ ‭Ring Topology‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ ach device is connected to two other devices, forming a circular pathway for data.‬
E
‭-‬ ‭Data travels in one direction; if one device fails, it can disrupt the entire network.‬

‭Diagram:‬
‭D1‬

‭/ \‬

‭D2 ---- D3‬

‭\ /‬

‭D4‬
 ‭4.‬ ‭Mesh Topology‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ very device is connected to every other device.‬

E
‭-‬ ‭Provides high redundancy and reliability; however, it can be complex and expensive to install.‬

‭Diagram:‬
‭D1‬

‭/ | \‬

‭D2--D3--D4‬

‭\ | /‬

‭D5‬

‭5.‬ ‭Tree Topology‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ hybrid topology that combines characteristics of star and bus topologies.‬

A
‭-‬ ‭Consists of groups of star-configured networks connected to a linear bus backbone.‬

‭Diagram:‬
‭Root Hub‬

‭/ | \‬

‭Hub1 Hub2 Hub3‬

‭/ \ | \‬

‭D1 D2 D3 D4‬

‭ ach topology has its advantages and disadvantages, impacting factors such as performance, scalability, and‬
E
‭fault tolerance.‬

‭Explain Twisted Pair and Fiber Optics with Diagram.‬

‭Twisted Pair Cable‬

‭ wisted pair cable consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce electromagnetic‬
T
‭interference (EMI). It is commonly used in telephone networks and local area networks (LANs).‬

‭-‬ ‭Types‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)‬‭: No additional shielding;‬‭cost-effective but more susceptible to‬
‭interference.‬
‭-‬ ‭Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)‬‭: Includes shielding that‬‭protects against interference; used in‬
‭environments with high EMI.‬

‭Diagram of Twisted Pair Cable‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Outer Insulation |‬
‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Shielding (if STP) |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Insulation |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Twisted Pairs |‬

‭| +---------+ +---------+ |‬

‭| | Wire 1 | | Wire 2 | |‬

‭| +---------+ +---------+ |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭Fiber Optic Cable‬

‭ iber optic cable uses thin strands of glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as light signals. It offers high-speed‬
F
‭data transmission over long distances with minimal loss.‬

‭-‬ ‭Components‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭Core‬‭: The central part that carries light signals.‬
‭-‬ ‭Cladding‬‭: Surrounds the core and reflects light back‬‭into it.‬
‭-‬ ‭Jacket‬‭: Protects the fiber from environmental damage.‬

‭Diagram of Fiber Optic Cable‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Jacket |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Cladding |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Core |‬

‭| (Light Transmission) |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭Comparison:‬
-‭ ‬ ‭ andwidth‬‭: Fiber optics offer significantly higher‬‭bandwidth compared to twisted pair cables.‬
B
‭-‬ ‭Distance‬‭: Fiber optics can transmit data over longer‬‭distances without loss compared to twisted pair‬
‭cables.‬
‭-‬ ‭Interference‬‭: Fiber optics are immune to electromagnetic‬‭interference, while twisted pair cables can be‬
‭affected by EMI.‬
‭ oth twisted pair and fiber optics are essential components in modern networking infrastructure, each serving‬
B
‭specific purposes based on requirements.‬

‭Explain ISDN Services and ISDN Interface.‬

‭ he‬‭Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)‬‭is‬‭a digital communication standard that enables simultaneous‬
T
‭transmission of voice, video, data, and other services over traditional telephone lines.‬

‭ISDN Services:‬
‭1.‬ V ‭ oice Services‬‭: Allows multiple voice calls over a‬‭single line using digital technology for clearer‬
‭communication.‬
‭2.‬ ‭Data Services‬‭: Supports high-speed internet access‬‭and data transfer between devices with minimal‬
‭latency.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Video Conferencing‬‭: Facilitates real-time video communication‬‭for remote meetings and collaboration.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Integrated Services‬‭: Combines voice, video, and data‬‭services through a single interface, enhancing‬
‭efficiency for businesses.‬

‭ISDN Interface:‬
‭ISDN provides two main types of interfaces:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Basic Rate Interface (BRI)‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ omprises two B channels (64 Kbps each) for user data and one D channel (16 Kbps) for‬
C
‭signaling.‬
‭-‬ ‭Suitable for small businesses or home users requiring moderate bandwidth.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Primary Rate Interface (PRI)‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ onsists of either 23 B channels in North America or 30 B channels in Europe plus one D channel.‬
C
‭-‬ ‭Designed for larger organizations needing higher bandwidth capabilities.‬

‭Diagram of ISDN Interface‬

‭+-------------------+‬

‭| |‬

‭| ISDN Switch |‬

‭| |‬

‭+-------------------+‬

‭|‬

‭| BRI or PRI‬

‭|‬

‭+-------+-------+‬

‭| |‬
 ‭| Terminal |‬

‭| Equipment |‬

‭+---------------+‬

I‭SDN interfaces enable efficient communication by allowing multiple services over a single line while maintaining‬
‭high-quality transmission standards suitable for various applications.‬

‭With Diagram Explain Types of Multiplexing.‬

‭ ultiplexing is a technique used in telecommunications to combine multiple signals into one signal over a shared‬
M
‭medium, optimizing resource usage and reducing infrastructure costs.‬

‭Types of Multiplexing:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭Allocates distinct time slots for each signal on the same channel.‬
‭-‬ ‭Allows multiple signals to share the same transmission medium without interference.‬

‭Diagram of TDM‬
‭+-------+-------+-------+-------+‬

‭| Time | Time | Time | Time |‬

‭| Slot1 | Slot2 | Slot3 | Slot4 |‬

‭| Signal A Signal B Signal C Signal D |‬

‭+-------+-------+-------+-------+‬

‭2.‬ ‭Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭Divides the available bandwidth into separate frequency bands for each signal.‬
‭-‬ ‭Enables simultaneous transmission without overlap.‬

‭Diagram of FDM‬
‭Frequency Range‬

‭-------------------------------------------------‬

‭Signal A Signal B Signal C‬

‭-------------------------------------------------‬

‭3.‬ ‭Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭A form of FDM used specifically in fiber optics where different wavelengths carry separate signals‬
‭concurrently over the same fiber.‬

‭Diagram of WDM‬
‭Wavelength Range‬

‭-------------------------------------------------‬

‭Wavelength A Wavelength B Wavelength C‬

‭-------------------------------------------------‬

‭4.‬ ‭Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭Assigns unique codes to each signal so they can coexist on the same frequency band without‬
‭interference.‬

‭Diagram of CDMA‬
‭Frequency Range‬

‭-------------------------------------------------‬

‭Code A Code B Code C‬

‭-------------------------------------------------‬

‭ ultiplexing techniques enhance communication efficiency by maximizing resource utilization while minimizing‬
M
‭costs associated with infrastructure development in telecommunications systems.‬

‭2020 QP‬

‭Describe TCP/IP Reference Model.‬

‭ he‬‭TCP/IP reference model‬‭is a framework for understanding‬‭how data is transmitted over networks,‬
T
‭particularly the internet. Developed by the U.S. Department of Defense, it consists of four layers, each‬
‭responsible for different aspects of network communication.‬

‭Layers of the TCP/IP Model:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Application Layer‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ his is the topmost layer that provides network services directly to user applications.‬
T
‭-‬ ‭Protocols at this layer include HTTP (for web browsing), FTP (for file transfer), SMTP (for email),‬
‭and DNS (for domain name resolution).‬
‭-‬ ‭It facilitates user interaction with the network.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Transport Layer‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ esponsible for end-to-end communication and data integrity.‬

R
‭-‬ ‭Key protocols include Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which ensures reliable transmission‬
‭through error checking and correction, and User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which offers faster but‬
‭less reliable communication.‬
‭-‬ ‭This layer manages segmentation of data into packets and ensures they are delivered in order.‬

‭3.‬ ‭Internet Layer‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ anages logical addressing and routing of packets across networks.‬

M
‭-‬ ‭The primary protocol here is the Internet Protocol (IP), which defines addressing methods and‬
‭packet forwarding.‬
‭-‬ ‭It ensures that data packets reach their intended destination across multiple networks.‬
 ‭4.‬ ‭Link Layer‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ lso known as the Network Access Layer, it encompasses the physical and data link layers of the‬
A
‭OSI model.‬
-‭ ‬ ‭Responsible for the physical transmission of data over network media.‬
‭-‬ ‭It handles error detection, framing, and access control to the physical medium.‬

‭Diagram of TCP/IP Model‬

‭+------------------------+‬

‭| Application Layer |‬

‭+------------------------+‬

‭| Transport Layer |‬

‭+------------------------+‬

‭| Internet Layer |‬

‭+------------------------+‬

‭| Link Layer |‬

‭+------------------------+‬

‭ he TCP/IP model is essential for understanding how different protocols interact to facilitate communication over‬
T
‭the internet, providing a standardized approach to networking.‬

‭ hat is Computer Network? Explain Different Types of Computer‬

W
‭Network.‬
‭ ‬‭computer network‬‭is a collection of interconnected‬‭computers and devices that communicate with each other‬
A
‭to share resources, information, and services. Networks can be categorized based on their size, geographical‬
‭coverage, and architecture.‬

‭Types of Computer Networks:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Local Area Network (LAN)‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ overs a small geographic area such as a home, office, or campus.‬

C
‭-‬ ‭High-speed connections typically using Ethernet or Wi-Fi technology.‬
‭-‬ ‭Example: A network connecting computers in a school or office building.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Wide Area Network (WAN)‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ pans a large geographic area, often connecting multiple LANs.‬

S
‭-‬ ‭Utilizes leased telecommunication lines or satellite links for connectivity.‬
‭-‬ ‭Example: The internet itself is the largest WAN, connecting millions of networks globally.‬

‭3.‬ ‭Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ overs a larger geographic area than a LAN but smaller than a WAN, such as a city or large‬
C
‭campus.‬
 -‭ ‬ ‭ ften used to connect multiple LANs within a specific region.‬
O
‭-‬ ‭Example: A network connecting various branches of a university across a city.‬

‭4.‬ ‭Personal Area Network (PAN)‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ small network typically used for personal devices within a short range (a few meters).‬
A
‭-‬ ‭Often utilizes Bluetooth technology for device connectivity.‬
‭-‬ ‭Example: Connecting smartphones, tablets, and laptops in a home environment.‬

‭5.‬ ‭Campus Area Network (CAN)‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ network that connects multiple LANs within a specific campus environment such as universities‬
A
‭or business campuses.‬
‭-‬ ‭Provides high-speed connections between buildings on the campus.‬

‭Summary‬
‭ omputer networks enable efficient communication and resource sharing among devices, playing a crucial role in‬
C
‭various applications from personal use to large-scale enterprise operations.‬

‭ hat is Multiplexing? With Diagram Explain Different Types of‬

W
‭Multiplexing.‬
‭ ultiplexing‬‭is a technique used in telecommunications‬‭to combine multiple signals into one signal over a‬
M
‭shared medium. This process optimizes bandwidth usage and reduces the number of physical connections‬
‭needed.‬

‭Types of Multiplexing:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭Allocates distinct time slots for each signal on the same channel.‬
‭-‬ ‭Each signal transmits during its allocated time slot without interference from others.‬

‭Diagram of TDM‬
‭+-------+-------+-------+-------+‬

‭| Time | Time | Time | Time |‬

‭| Slot1 | Slot2 | Slot3 | Slot4 |‬

‭| Signal A Signal B Signal C Signal D |‬

‭+-------+-------+-------+-------+‬

‭2.‬ ‭Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭Divides the available bandwidth into separate frequency bands for each signal.‬
‭-‬ ‭Enables simultaneous transmission without overlap between signals.‬

‭Diagram of FDM‬
‭Frequency Range‬

‭-------------------------------------------------‬

‭Signal A Signal B Signal C‬

‭-------------------------------------------------‬

‭3.‬ ‭Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭A form of FDM used specifically in fiber optics where different wavelengths carry separate signals‬
‭concurrently over the same fiber.‬

‭Diagram of WDM‬
‭Wavelength Range‬

‭-------------------------------------------------‬

‭Wavelength A Wavelength B Wavelength C‬

‭-------------------------------------------------‬

‭4.‬ ‭Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭Assigns unique codes to each signal so they can coexist on the same frequency band without‬
‭interference.‬

‭Diagram of CDMA‬
‭Frequency Range‬

‭-------------------------------------------------‬

‭Code A Code B Code C‬

‭-------------------------------------------------‬

‭ ultiplexing techniques enhance communication efficiency by maximizing resource utilization while minimizing‬
M
‭costs associated with infrastructure development in telecommunications systems.‬

‭ xplain the Following Guided Transmission Media with Diagram: i)‬

E
‭Twisted Pair ii) Optical Fiber‬

‭i) Twisted Pair Cable‬

‭ wisted pair cable consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce electromagnetic‬
T
‭interference (EMI). It is commonly used in telephone networks and local area networks (LANs).‬

‭-‬ ‭Types‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)‬‭: No additional shielding;‬‭cost-effective but more susceptible to‬
‭interference.‬
‭-‬ ‭Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)‬‭: Includes shielding that‬‭protects against interference; used in‬
‭environments with high EMI.‬

‭Diagram of Twisted Pair Cable‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Outer Insulation |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬
‭| Shielding (if STP) |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Insulation |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Twisted Pairs |‬

‭| +---------+ +---------+ |‬

‭| | Wire 1 | | Wire 2 | |‬

‭| +---------+ +---------+ |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭ii) Optical Fiber‬

‭ ptical fiber uses thin strands of glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as light signals. This technology is used‬
O
‭for high-speed data transmission over long distances with minimal loss.‬

‭-‬ ‭Components‬‭:‬
‭-‬ ‭Core‬‭: The central part that carries light signals.‬
‭-‬ ‭Cladding‬‭: Surrounds the core and reflects light back‬‭into it.‬
‭-‬ ‭Jacket‬‭: Protects the fiber from environmental damage.‬

‭Diagram of Optical Fiber‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Jacket |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Cladding |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭| Core |‬

‭| (Light Transmission) |‬

‭+-------------------------------------+‬

‭Comparison:‬
-‭ ‬ ‭ andwidth‬‭: Fiber optics offer significantly higher‬‭bandwidth compared to twisted pair cables.‬
B
‭-‬ ‭Distance‬‭: Fiber optics can transmit data over longer‬‭distances without loss compared to twisted pair‬
‭cables.‬
‭-‬ ‭Interference‬‭: Fiber optics are immune to electromagnetic‬‭interference, while twisted pair cables can be‬
‭affected by EMI.‬

‭ oth twisted pair and optical fibers are essential components in modern networking infrastructure, each serving‬
B
‭specific purposes based on requirements.‬
 ‭2016 QP‬

‭ efine Computer Network. Distinguish Computer Network with‬

D
‭Distributed System.‬
‭ ‬‭computer network‬‭is a collection of interconnected‬‭computers and devices that communicate with each other‬
A
‭to share resources and information. Networks can be wired or wireless and vary in size from small local area‬
‭networks (LANs) to large global networks like the internet.‬

‭Distinction Between Computer Network and Distributed System:‬

‭Aspect‬ ‭Computer Network‬ ‭Distributed System‬

‭Definition‬ ‭ group of interconnected devices‬

A ‭ collection of independent‬
A
‭sharing resources.‬ ‭computers working together as a‬
‭single system.‬

‭Control‬ ‭ ften has centralized control‬

O ‭ perates with decentralized‬
O
‭through servers or routers.‬ ‭control, distributing tasks across‬
‭nodes.‬

‭Complexity‬ ‭ enerally less complex, focusing‬

G ‭ ore complex, managing both‬
M
‭on connectivity and‬ ‭communication and computation‬
‭communication.‬ ‭processes.‬

‭Transparency‬ ‭ sers are aware of the underlying‬

U ‭ rovides transparency, making the‬
P
‭network structure.‬ ‭distributed nature invisible to users.‬

‭Scalability‬ ‭ an be scaled but may require‬

C ‭ esigned to be inherently scalable‬
D
‭significant reconfiguration.‬ ‭by adding more nodes without‬
‭major changes.‬

‭Fault Tolerance‬ ‭ ulnerable to single points of‬

V ‭ ighly fault-tolerant, capable of‬
H
‭failure that can disrupt the network.‬ ‭rerouting tasks if a component fails.‬

‭ omputer networks primarily focus on enabling communication and resource sharing, while distributed systems‬
C
‭aim to perform complex tasks by distributing workloads across multiple nodes.‬

‭Explain ISO-OSI Model in Detail.‬

‭ he‬‭ISO-OSI (International Organization for Standardization‬‭- Open Systems Interconnection)‬‭model is a‬
T
‭conceptual framework used to understand network interactions in seven layers:‬

‭Layers of the OSI Model:‬

‭1.‬ ‭Physical Layer‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ eals with the physical connection between devices, including cables, switches, and signaling.‬
D
‭-‬ ‭Defines electrical, mechanical, and procedural specifications for data transmission.‬

‭2.‬ ‭Data Link Layer‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ esponsible for node-to-node data transfer and error detection/correction.‬

R
‭-‬ ‭Divided into two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC).‬
 ‭3.‬ ‭Network Layer‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ anages routing of data packets across networks.‬

M
‭-‬ ‭Responsible for logical addressing (e.g., IP addresses) to ensure data reaches its destination.‬

‭4.‬ ‭Transport Layer‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ nsures reliable data transfer between end systems through error recovery and flow control.‬
E
‭-‬ ‭Key protocols include TCP (reliable) and UDP (unreliable).‬

‭5.‬ ‭Session Layer‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ anages sessions between applications, establishing, maintaining, and terminating connections.‬

M
‭-‬ ‭Responsible for dialog control and synchronization.‬

‭6.‬ ‭Presentation Layer‬‭:‬

‭-‬ ‭ ranslates data between the application layer and the network format; handles encryption and‬
T
‭compression.‬
‭-‬ ‭Ensures that data is presented in a readable format for the application layer.‬

‭7.‬ ‭Application Layer‬‭:‬

-‭ ‬ ‭ rovides network services directly to user applications.‬

P
‭-‬ ‭Includes protocols such as HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS.‬

‭Diagram of OSI Model‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Application Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Presentation Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Session Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Transport Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Network Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭| Data Link Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬
‭| Physical Layer |‬

‭+---------------------+‬

‭ he OSI model helps standardize communication functions to enable interoperability among different systems‬
T
‭and technologies.‬

‭Distinguish OSI Model with TCP/IP Model.‬

‭ he OSI model and TCP/IP model are both frameworks for understanding networking protocols but differ in‬
T
‭structure and approach.‬

‭Comparison Table:‬
‭Aspect‬ ‭OSI Model‬ ‭TCP/IP Model‬

‭Layers‬ ‭ even layers: Physical, Data Link,‬

S ‭ our layers: Link, Internet,‬
F
‭Network, Transport, Session,‬ ‭Transport, Application.‬
‭Presentation, Application.‬

‭Development‬ ‭ eveloped by ISO as a theoretical‬

D ‭ eveloped by ARPANET as a‬
D
‭framework.‬ ‭practical implementation‬
‭framework.‬

‭Layer Functions‬ ‭ ach layer has distinct functions;‬

E ‭ ombines some functions into‬
C
‭more granular separation of duties.‬ ‭fewer layers; more streamlined‬
‭approach.‬

‭Protocol Independence‬ ‭ rotocols can be implemented at‬

P ‭ rotocols are tightly integrated‬
P
‭each layer independently.‬ ‭within layers; primarily focused on‬
‭TCP/IP protocols.‬

‭Usage‬ ‭ ore commonly used as a‬

M ‭ idely adopted in real-world‬
W
‭teaching tool; less practical‬ ‭networking; forms the basis of the‬
‭implementation in modern‬ ‭internet architecture.‬
‭networks.‬

‭ he OSI model provides a comprehensive framework for understanding networking concepts, while the TCP/IP‬
T
‭model is more practical and widely used in actual implementations.‬

‭ hat is Transmission Medium? Explain Co-axial Transmission Medium‬

W
‭in Detail with a Neat Diagram.‬
‭ ‬‭transmission medium‬‭is the physical pathway through‬‭which signals travel from one location to another in a‬
A
‭communication system. It can be classified into guided (wired) media and unguided (wireless) media.‬

‭Co-axial Transmission Medium‬

‭ o-axial cable consists of a central conductor surrounded by insulation, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating‬
C
‭layer. It is widely used for cable television and broadband internet connections due to its high bandwidth capacity.‬

‭Structure:‬
‭ .‬ I‭nner Conductor‬‭: Transmits signals; usually made of‬‭copper.‬
1
‭2.‬ ‭Insulation‬‭: Separates the inner conductor from the‬‭outer shield; prevents signal loss.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Outer Shield‬‭: Reduces electromagnetic interference;‬‭typically made of braided metal or foil.‬
 ‭4.‬ ‭Outer Jacket‬‭: Protects against environmental damage.‬

‭Diagram of Co-axial Cable‬

‭+-----------------------------------------+‬

‭| Outer Jacket |‬

‭+-----------------------------------------+‬

‭| Shielding |‬

‭+-----------------------------------------+‬

‭| Insulation |‬

‭+-----------------------------------------+‬

‭| Inner Conductor |‬

‭+-----------------------------------------+‬

‭Advantages:‬
-‭ ‬ ‭ igh bandwidth capacity compared to twisted pair cables.‬
H
‭-‬ ‭Better resistance to signal interference due to its shielding.‬
‭-‬ ‭Suitable for long-distance transmission without significant signal loss.‬

‭ o-axial cables are essential components in modern communication systems, providing reliable connections for‬
C
‭various applications.‬

‭Compare Circuit Switching Method with Packet Switching Method.‬

‭Circuit Switching‬
‭ ircuit switching is a method where a dedicated communication path or circuit is established between two‬
C
‭endpoints for the duration of their conversation or data transfer.‬

‭Characteristics:‬
-‭ ‬ ‭ fixed bandwidth is allocated for the entire duration of the connection.‬
A
‭-‬ ‭Suitable for real-time applications like voice calls where consistent quality is required.‬
‭-‬ ‭Inefficient use of resources when the circuit remains idle during silence periods.‬

‭Example:‬
‭Traditional telephone networks use circuit switching to establish a dedicated line for each call until it ends.‬

‭Packet Switching‬
‭ acket switching divides data into smaller packets that are sent independently over the network without‬
P
‭establishing a dedicated path beforehand.‬

‭Characteristics:‬
-‭ ‬ ‭ ackets can take different routes to reach their destination based on current network conditions.‬
P
‭-‬ ‭More efficient use of bandwidth since multiple packets from different sources can share the same‬
‭transmission medium simultaneously.‬
 ‭-‬ ‭Suitable for bursty traffic patterns typical in data communications (e.g., internet traffic).‬

‭Example:‬
‭ he internet uses packet switching to transmit data where packets are routed independently based on IP‬
T
‭addresses.‬

‭Comparison Table:‬
‭Aspect‬ ‭Circuit Switching‬ ‭Packet Switching‬

‭Connection Setup‬ ‭ equires establishment of a‬

R ‭ o dedicated path; packets sent‬
N
‭dedicated circuit before‬ ‭independently without setup time.‬
‭communication begins.‬

‭Bandwidth Utilization‬ ‭ ixed bandwidth allocated;‬

F ‭ ynamic allocation; efficient use of‬
D
‭inefficient during idle times.‬ ‭available bandwidth.‬

‭Delay‬ ‭ ower delay during transmission‬

L ‭ ariable delay due to routing; may‬
V
‭once established.‬ ‭lead to out-of-order delivery.‬

‭Applications‬ ‭ est suited for voice calls or‬

B I‭deal for data transfer over‬
‭real-time applications.‬ ‭networks like the internet.‬

‭ oth methods have their advantages depending on specific application requirements in telecommunications and‬
B
‭networking environments.‬

‭Chat link:‬‭perplexity‬