What is an argument?

It is a system composed of proofs called premises that result in a conclusion.

What is a premise?

Is a series of judgments or statements that serve to prove or validate the argument.

Validity and the truth: When is an argument valid?

When the conclusion logically follows from the premises.

If the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true as well and a statement is
considered true if it accurately corresponds to reality or can be objectively verified

What are the major 8 rules of argumentation?

1. Clarity: Arguments should be clear, concise, and easy to understand, ensuring that the
meaning and intent are apparent to the audience.

2. Consistency: An argument should maintain internal consistency, without contradicting itself

or presenting conflicting premises.

3. Coherence: The premises and conclusion of an argument should be logically connected and
provide a rational flow of reasoning.

4. Relevance: Each premise should be directly related to the conclusion and contribute to the
overall argument.

5. Sufficiency: The premises should provide enough evidence or support to establish the
conclusion as plausible or probable.

6. Validity: The argument should adhere to valid logical reasoning, where the conclusion
logically follows from the premises.

7. Falsifiability: Arguments should be open to being proven wrong or disproven, allowing for
critical examination and counterarguments.

8. Persuasiveness: Effective arguments should be persuasive, taking into account the

audience's values, beliefs, and potential counterarguments to increase their likelihood of
acceptance

What are some characteristics of classical logic?

1. The argument must be composed of several premises that are followed by a conclusion.

2. The premises and conclusions are sentences formerly called propositions. These must be
true or false.

3. In a valid argument all the premises must be true and the conclusion

What are syllogisms? Here is the general structure of a

syllogism:
Syllogisms are a form of deductive reasoning or logical argument that
Premise 1: All A are B. (Major Premise)
consists of two premises and a conclusion
Premise 2: All B are C. (Minor Premise) C
Syllogisms follow a specific structure and aim to draw a logical conclusion
Conclusion: Therefore, all A are C.
based on the relationships between the premises.
 What are the 4 types of universal Aristotelic propositions or laws?

1. Universal Affirmative (A-statement): This proposition affirms that all members of a particular class have a
certain attribute. It is denoted by the form "All A are B" or "Every A is B." For example, "All birds have wings."
The A-statement is considered universal because it makes a claim about the entire class.

2. Universal Negative (E-statement): This proposition denies that any member of a particular class has a certain
attribute. It is denoted by the form "No A are B" or "None of the A is B." For example, "No reptiles are mammals."
The E-statement is universal and negative because it negates the entire class.

3. Particular Affirmative (I-statement): This proposition affirms that some members of a particular class have a
certain attribute. It is denoted by the form "Some A are B" or "At least some A is B." For example, "Some dogs
are brown." The I-statement is particular because it refers to only some members of the class.

4. Particular Negative (O-statement): This proposition indicates that some members of a particular class do not
have a certain attribute. It is denoted by the form "Some A are not B" or "At least some A is not B." For example,
"Some fruits are not sweet." The O-statement is particular and negative because it denies the attribute for only
some members of the class.

Who was the modern philosopher who wrote about the 3 laws of logic thinking?

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. He made significant contributions to the field of logic and is known
for his work on formal logic and metaphysics.

What is the law of identity?

This law states that every individual, thing or situation is equal to itself.

What does the law of no contradiction stand?

Is when a proposition and its negation cannot both be true at the same time.

What is the law of the third excluded?

Indicates that propositions cannot be partially true or partially false.

What are the 6 laws to learn to dialog properly?

1. Broken record technique: it is about repeating the same argument over and over again, patiently and calmly.

2. Fog bank: It is when you see the other person upset and you try to calm him or her down to calmly continue the
discussion. It can be giving him the reason totally or partially.

3. Assertive postponement: it is about postponing our response until we feel better to respond correctly, in the
case of being upset ourselves.

4. Relativize the importance of what is discussed: It is about reaching an agreement that the form has surpassed
the substance, that the discussion is disproportionate with respect to the subject that is being discussed.

5. Technique of differentiating a behavior from a way of being: It's about not generalizing.

6. Assertive question technique: it is a self-defense technique that is instead responding with some questions to
force the other to clarify.
What are paradoxes?

They are propositions that contradict themselves because they contain two ideas that can be
true, but they cannot be true at the same time. Example: “I always lie”

What are fallacies?

They are persuasive arguments that seem logically valid but are not.

What are the two major groups of fallacies?

Formal and Informal Fallacies.

What are the two types of formal fallacies? Provide examples

Affirmation of the consequent.

Example:

1. If my friend is good, he will do my homework,

2. My friend did my homework,

3. So he is good.

Denial of the antecedent.

Example:

1. If I have a girlfriend, I'm happy.

2. I don’t have a girlfriend.

3. So I’m not happy.

What are the informal fallacies?

Informal fallacies occur when the premises are not relevant for determining the conclusion.

Examples:

- The fallacy Ad Hominin: “Your opinion doesn't matter, due to your skin tone.”

- The Hasty generalization: “In the exams of English, I always fail, so I’m sure that I’m
going to fail in the next exam”

- The fallacy Ad Ignorantiam: “He is not innocent, because he can’t prove he is”

What is the symbolic logic?

Symbolic logic is a branch of mathematics that uses symbols to represent logical expressions
and principles, rather than ordinary language.