IT1916

Introduction to Electronics
Electronics is a field of applied science that uses components such as resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors,
and integrated circuits (ICs) to control and process electricity. These components are used to create circuits
that convert, modify, vary, translate, or manipulate electrical charges to perform useful functions.

Solid State Fundamentals

• Semiconductors – It is the third category of material aside from conductors and insulators. It can be
changed to make it a good conductor, a good insulator, or anything in between. Semiconductors are
also used to make transistors, diodes, and ICs.
There are two (2) types of semiconductors:
o n-type semiconductors – These have free negative charge carriers through the use of donor
impurities (phosphorus)
o p-type semiconductors – These have free positive charge carriers through the use of acceptor
impurities (boron)
• Doping – It is the process of adding other materials called impurities to the silicon crystal to change its
electrical characteristics. This method is used for transferring free electrons, either positive or
negative charge, from one place to other electron holes.

Types of Electronic Devices

• Switches – These are just two (sometimes more) metal contacts and a mechanical device to open and
close them. If in one position, the switch contacts are open and not touching so that no current will
flow through them, the switch is “off.” If the switch lever is moved, and the contacts are made to
touch, making a path for current to flow, then the switch is said to be “on.”
• Resistors – These are one of the most common components in electronics. These limit or set the level
of current in a circuit and offer opposition to current flow, which is measured in ohms. The higher the
ohms value, the more resistance it offers to electron flow.
• Capacitor – It is a device store electrical charge. It is made up of two (2) metallic plates separated by
an insulator, such as plastic, ceramic, or even air. Its basic function is to be charged or discharged.
• Inductors – These are mainly just coils of wire. When current flows through them, they produce a
magnetic field and induce a voltage in themselves. This is called self-induction. The induced voltage
has an opposite polarity of the applied voltage. The result is that the induced voltage causes opposition
to the current flow. This characteristic is often used to control current flow in AC circuits.
• Transformer – It usually comprises two (2) coils or windings on a common core. A voltage applied to
one (1) winding called primary causes the current to flow and a magnetic field to develop. This
magnetic field spreads out and induces voltage in the other winding called secondary, thereby
transferring electrical energy from one coil to another by way of magnetic field.
Transformers are also used for stepping up or down the voltage levels of AC signals, as well as for
signal isolation and impedance matching.
• Diode – It is a semiconductor component that lets current flow through it in one (1) direction but
blocks current in the other depending on the polarity of the voltage applied to it. It is used mainly for
rectification, the process of converting AC into DC. It also acts like a polarity-sensitive switch.
• Transistor – It is a three-terminal semiconductor device that uses a small input signal to control a
much larger output signal and has two (2) basic functions: amplification and switching.

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In amplification, the small input variation causes a larger output current variation. The small input
signal is not really made bigger, but the larger output variation has the same shape and characteristics,
resulting in the same effect. The transistor simply varies the larger DC from the supply and shapes it
like the input.
• Integrated Circuits (IC) – Also called chip, it is a complete circuit made on a single chip of silicon. All
the components are made at the same time and interconnected to form an amplifier, microcomputer,
memory, oscillator, or radio transceiver, among others. IC is then connected to DC power to work.

Diodes
A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as a one-way switch for
current. It allows current to flow easily in one (1) direction but severely restricts
from flowing in the opposite direction. Therefore, diodes act like a polarity-
sensitive switch.
Diodes have polarity, which is determined by an anode (positive lead) and
cathode (negative lead). Most diodes allow current to flow only when positive
voltage is applied to the anode.
With no externally applied potential, electrons from the N-type material will
cross into the P-type region and fill some of the vacant holes. This action will
result in the production of a region at either side of the junction in which there
are no free charge carriers. This zone is known as the depletion region.
Fig 1. Diode polarity orientation
Common Types of Diodes
• PN Junction Diode – These diodes can come as small-signal types for use in radio frequency (RF) or
other low current applications, which may be called signal diodes. Other types may be planned for
high voltage and high current applications and are normally named rectifier diodes.
• Zener Diode – It is used to provide a stable reference voltage. It works under reverse bias conditions
in which, when a particular voltage is reached, breaks down. If a resistor limits the flow of current, it
activates a stable voltage to be generated. This type of diode is widely used to offer a reference voltage
in power supplies.
• Light Emitting Diode (LED) – When the diode is connected in forwarding bias, the current flows
through the junction and generates the light.
• Schottky Diode – The Schottky diode has a lower forward voltage drop than ordinary Si PN-junction
diodes. These diodes are extensively used in rectifier applications, clamping diodes, and RF
applications.

PN Diode Zener Diode LED Schottky Diode

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Applications of Using Diodes

• Rectification: A diode’s most basic function is acting as a rectifier, in which its roles is straightening an
alternating AC power source into a constant (or at least varying unidirectional) power source.
Arranging multiple diodes can also form a full-wave bridge rectifier.
Instead of blocking half of an AC signal, the diode allows each half to flow but reverses one (1) side so
that current only flows in one (1) direction. Adding up capacitors and other components can smooth
out and produce power that approaches a linear signal.
• Light Emission: LEDs provide a much more efficient source of light. These bulbs cost more than their
incandescent counterparts, in part because they require additional control circuitry to work with
household AC power. LEDs are also available in much smaller form factors without the associated
circuitry.
• Inductive Load Dissipation: When an inductive load switches off, its stored energy must go
somewhere. Diodes in a “flyback” configuration provide a simple solution: electricity flows in the
proper direction across the inductor when in operation then moves in a reverse path across the
diode’s forward-biased direction when switched off. This configuration allows current to dissipate
across the inductor and be fed back into the power supply, thus protecting the circuit.
• Sensing and Control: Semiconductors can generate electrical charges based on optical effects. In
general, these devices are packaged in such a way as to block out light to avoid unintended electrical
activity.

PN Junction Diode Biasing

It shows a junction diode in which the anode is made positive with respect to the cathode. In a forward-biased
condition, the diode freely passes the current. In the freely conducting forward-biased state, the diode acts as
a closed switch. In a reverse-biased condition, the diode passes a negligible amount of current. In this state,
the diode acts as an open switch.

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Figure 2. Diode forward and reverse bias

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Characteristic Curve of a Diode

• The breakdown usually occurs at hundreds of volts, so the
scale of the horizontal axis is much larger to the left of the
origin.
• The forward turn-on voltage is about 0.65V for a silicon
diode.
• Ohm’s law is used to calculate diode resistance at two (20
different operating points on the characteristic curve.

Figure 3. Characteristic curve of a diode

Diode Operating Point and Load Line

The graphical analysis technique on the right is based
on the definition of two (2) separate equations:
• Representation of the diode or Q-point (in
terms of the forward bias of the diode)
• Load line that relates to the given circuit.
The Q-point (also known as quiescent point or
operating point) is the intersection of the two (2)
curves and defines the operational parameters ID and
VD.

Figure 4. Operating point and load line of a diode

Diodes Circuit Theory Examples

1. Calculate the current for a 2. Schottky diodes drop about 3. Calculate the current for a 100𝑣𝑣
1𝑣𝑣 battery and a 1𝑘𝑘Ω resistor. 0.3𝑣𝑣 when conducting. battery and a 1𝑘𝑘Ω resistor.
Then, calculate the silicon Calculate the current for a Determine the importance of
voltage drop of 0.6𝑣𝑣. Schottky diode, a 1𝑣𝑣 battery, correcting the voltage drop of a
and a 1𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 resistor. silicon diode.
𝑉𝑉 1𝑣𝑣
𝐼𝐼 = = = 1𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 100𝑣𝑣
𝑅𝑅 1𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑉 1𝑣𝑣 − 0.3𝑣𝑣 𝐼𝐼 = = 100𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
1kΩ
𝑉𝑉 1𝑣𝑣 − 0.6𝑣𝑣 𝐼𝐼 = = = 0.7𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 100𝑣𝑣 − 0.6𝑣𝑣
𝐼𝐼 = = = 0.4𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑅𝑅 1𝑘𝑘Ω 𝐼𝐼 = = 99.4𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅 1𝑘𝑘Ω 1kΩ

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Example: Determine the current in the following circuit and the voltage 0.7𝑣𝑣 across the diode.

Step 1: Get the load line of the Step 2: Plot the load line using the Step 3: Solve for the voltage and
circuit by solving for the applied applied voltage and current. current load.
voltage and current.
𝑣𝑣𝐷𝐷 = 0.7𝑣𝑣
𝑣𝑣 = 5𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴 − 𝑣𝑣𝐷𝐷
𝑖𝑖𝐷𝐷 =
𝑣𝑣 5𝑣𝑣 𝑅𝑅
𝑖𝑖 = = = 5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 5𝑣𝑣 − 0.7𝑣𝑣
𝑅𝑅 1𝑘𝑘Ω 𝑖𝑖𝐷𝐷 =
1𝑘𝑘Ω
𝑖𝑖𝐷𝐷 = 4.3𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

References:
Cook, J. (2019, February 25). Types of diodes and their applications. In Arrow.com. Retrieved from
https://www.arrow.com/en/research-and-events/articles/types-of-diodes-and-their-applications on September
19, 2019
Fernandez-Canque, H. (2017). Analog electronics applications – Fundamentals of design and analysis. NW: CRC Press.
Frenzel, L. (2018). Electronics explained: Fundamentals for engineers, technicians and makers. Cambridge, MA: Newnes.
Schuler, C. (2019). Electronics: Principles and applications (9th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Storey, N. (2017). Electronics. A systems approach (6th ed.). Harlow, UK: Pearson.
Tooley, M. (2018). Electronic circuits - Fundamentals and applications. New York: Routledge.
Types of Diodes | Small Signal, LED, Schottky, Zener. (2019, April 27). In Electronics Hub. Retrieved from
https://www.electronicshub.org/types-of-diodes/ on September 19, 2019
What is a diode?. (n.d.). In Fluke. Retrieved from https://www.fluke.com/en-ph/learn/best-practices/measurement-
basics/electricity/what-is-a-diode on September 19, 2019

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