MATHEMATICS IN

THE MODERN WORLD

Module 6
Data Management
(Collection and Presentation of Data)

Prepared by: Nimrod I. Naranjo – Master Teacher I

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD_PSU EL NIDO CAMPUS _MODULE 6

For the learner:
This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful
opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time.
You will be enabled to process the contents of the learning resource while being
an active learner.

If you encounter any difficulty in answering the tasks in this module, do not
hesitate to consult your teacher or facilitator. Always bear in mind that you are
not alone.

We hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful

learning and gain understanding of the relevant learning outcomes. You can do
it!

After going through this module, you are expected to:

• Identify and distinguish the classifications of data.

• Effectively organize data.
• Identify the different classification of variables.
• Apply the summation rule.
• Summarize data using the frequency distribution.

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD_PSU EL NIDO CAMPUS _MODULE 6

 Definition, Division, and
Lesson 1
Importance of Statistics
Meaning of Statistics:

➢ Statistics may be defined as the collection, presentation, and analysis and

interpretation of quantitative data.
• It is the science of classifying and manipulating of data to draw
inference.
• The focal point of modern statistical analysis is decision – making.
➢ Statistical methods are essential tools in much research in education,
psychology, medicine, business, agriculture, and other disciplines.
➢ In school, it is used to gather information on enrollment, finance and
physical facilities which are needed for administration and management.
It is also used to advise a system of measurement and evaluation of the
performance of the students.
➢ In business, statistics serves as a guide for manager to make wise decisions
in forecasting business trends. It also serves to project future economic
activity, improvement of employee – employer relationship, quality
control, promotions and advertising, and marketing.
➢ In psychology, it is used to analyze and interpret data in intelligence tests,
aptitudes, personality traits and attitudes.
➢ Medical research use statistics evaluate the effectiveness on some
medical procedures in the prevention of diseases and to test the
effectiveness of drugs. Statistics is a vital tool for behavioral scientists who
want to determine the effects of certain treatment or condition to human
behaviors.
➢ In government, it serves the different government agencies with
organized records on the movement of population, cost of living, taxes
and wages and material resources which are necessary for wise policy -
making.

DESCRIPTIVE AND INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

There are two division s of statistics namely,

➢ Descriptive Statistics – this is concerned with the collection, classification
and presentation of data and thus summarizing values to describe group
characteristics of the data.
• Measures of location, variability, skewness, and Kurtosis fall within
this area of statistics.

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD_PSU EL NIDO CAMPUS _MODULE 6

➢ Inferential Statistics – this is concerned with formulation of conclusions or
generalizations about a population based on an observation or series of
observations of a sample drawn from the population.
• By population we mean the totality of all the actual object of a
certain class under consideration.
• It is a complete set of individuals, objects or measurements having
some common observable characteristics.
▪ For example, the users of paracetamol in Metro Manila, the
students in BSCH program, the medicines in Region IV-B, and
the different products produced by Unilab.
• A sample is a finite number of objects selected from the population.

SOME BASIC VOCABULARY

❖ Population – is a totality of all actual or conceivable objects of a certain
class under consideration.
Examples are the I.Q. of all elementary pupils of PSU, the
salaries of all employees of SM City, and the scores of all
students taking Math in the Modern World.
❖ Sample – is a finite portion (subset) of the population that is used to study
the characteristics of concern in the population.
• It is only a part or the representative of the entire population.
❖ Parameter – is a descriptive measure computed from or used to describe
a population of data.
❖ Statistic – is a descriptive measure computed from or used to describe a
sample of data.
❖ Data – is the collection of observation or values it assumes in the sample.
❖ Variable – is any characteristics that can be measured on each unit in the
population.
❖ Quantitative Variable – is one whose values are expressible as numerical
quantities such as measurement or counts: grade, weight, age, family
income, birth rate, number of children in the family, number of voters who
favor a certain issue, number of successfully treated patients.
• Quantitative variable is further classified as being discrete or
continuous.
❖ Discrete Variable – is a quantitative variable that can assume a finite
number or utmost countable number of values.
• Countable means you can associate the values with the counting
numbers 1, 2, 3, … that is the values can be counted.

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 ❖ Continuous Variable – is a quantitative variable that can assume an
infinite number of values associated with the numbers on a line interval
• For example, grade point average is a continuous variable
because it could assume any value in the line interval from 0.0 to 5.0
❖ Qualitative Variable – is a variable whose values are classifications or
categories and are not subject to a quantitative interpretation.
• Example of qualitative variables include political party affiliation
occupation, marital status, sex, major employment status.
❖ Independent Variable – is one that is controlled or manipulated by the
experimenter. In an experiment it is often referred to as a factor.
❖ Dependent Variable – is a variable that is measured on its experimental
unit to determine whether its value is affected by the independent
variable.
Example 1: Describe (a) the population (b) the sample (c) a variable of
Interest
1. To investigate the attitude of college students about abortion, a
statistics class selected five hundred students from their university
an obtained their opinions on abortion
Answer:

Population: all college students

Sample: 500 college students selected from a particular university
Variable: opinion on abortion

2. Out of 1,000 accidents investigated by the highway patrol, 526

were found to be alcoholic related
Answer:
Population: accidents investigated by the highway patrol
Sample: 1,000 accidents investigated
Variable: Alcohol related or not

Example 2: Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable.

1. To study the effect of exercise on the risk of heart disease, an
investigator wishes to compare the incidence of heart disease in
bus drivers and pedestrian police of Puerto Princesa City

(a) Independent Variable: amount of exercise

(b) Dependent Variable: risk of heart disease

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 2. Sixty students were randomly divided into two groups to study
the effect of alcohol on reaction time. Each member of one
group consumed a specified amount of alcohol and members
of the group had a non-alcoholic beverage.

(a) Independent Variable: amount of alcohol

(b) Dependent Variable: reaction time

Scales of Measurement for Qualitative and Quantitative Variables

❖ A nominal scale simply identifies categories of the variable. The

various categories are called the classes or levels of the scale.
Other variables using the nominal scale are:
1. Sex
2. Religious preference
3. Political party affiliation
4. Occupation

❖ An ordinal scale includes all the properties of a nominal scale with the
additional property that observations can be ranked from the smallest to
the largest.
Other variables using the nominal scale are:
1. Outcome of a beauty contest
2. Response to a questionnaire that attempts to records
degrees of feeling or opinion
3. You rate your teacher’s performance as poor, fair,
average, good or excellent

❖ An interval scale includes all the properties of an ordinal scale with the
additional property that distance between observation is meaningful.
Other variables using the nominal scale are:
1. Test scores
2. Temperature scales such as Fahrenheit and Celsius

❖ The ratio scale includes all the properties of an interval scale with the
additional property that ratios of observations are meaningful.

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 Other variables using the nominal scale are:
1. Weight
2. Height,
3. Age
4. Birth rate
5. Income
➢ Regarding the distinction between qualitative and quantitative variables,
we can say that qualitative variables (also called categorical variable)
are generally measured on either a nominal or ordinal scale.
➢ Quantitative variables (also called measurement variables) are generally
measured on an interval/ratio scale.

SUBSCRIPT AND SUMMATION NOTATION

➢ In dealing with the raw data in Statistics, we always need to add several
numbers.
➢ Usually, the symbol Σ the Greek capital letter sigma is used in the process.
It is read as “sum” and it tells us to add certain expression.
➢ In Σ𝑋𝑖 the letter 𝑖 is called the subscript or the index of summation. The
letter chosen to represent the index of summation is arbitrary. The
expression Σ𝑋𝑖 read as “the sum of the terms 𝑋𝑖 where 𝑖 assumes the value
from 1 to 𝑛 inclusive.
➢ “The number 1 and 𝑛 are called the lower and upper limits of summation,
respectively”.

Example 1

∑4𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + 𝑋4
∑4𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + 𝑎3 𝑥3 + 𝑎4 𝑥4

Example 2
Consider the first 4 multiple of 10, 20, 30, 40 use the corresponding
summation formula to find:

1. The sum of the first 4 multiples of 10.

2. The sum of the square of the first four multiple of 10.
3. The sum of the product of pairs of values consisting of the first 4
counting numbers and the first four multiples of 10.

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 Solutions:
1. ∑4𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + 𝑋4
= 10 + 20 + 30 + 40
= 100
2. ∑4𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 2 = 𝑋1 2 + 𝑋2 2 + 𝑋3 2 + 𝑋4 2
= 100 + 400 + 900 + 1600
= 3,000
3. ∑4𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑎1 𝑥1 + 𝑎2 𝑥2 + 𝑎3 𝑥3 + 𝑎4 𝑥4
= 1(10) + 2(20) + 3(30) + 4(40)
= 300
Example 3
1. ∑5𝑖=1 3𝑖
Solution: ∑5𝑖=1 3𝑖 = 3(1) + 3(2) + 3(3) + 3(4) + 3(5)
= 3 + 6 + 9 + 12 + 15
= 45
2. 2. ∑5𝑖=1(4𝑖 2 − 1)
Solution:
∑5𝑖=1(4𝑖 2 − 1) = [4(1)2 − 1] + [4(2)2 − 1] + [4(3)2 − 1] + [4(4)3 − 1] + [4(5)2 − 1]
= 3 + 15 + 35 + 63 + 99
= 215

Remarks: It is not necessary that the index of summation be a subscript.

Examples:
1. ∑10
𝑖=0 𝑥 = 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10

= 55
2. ∑3𝑖=1(𝑥 2 − 𝑥 ) = (12 − 1) + (22 − 2) + (32 − 3)
= 0+2+6
=8

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Lesson 2
Collection of Data
➢ Data are collections of any number of related observations.
➢ A collection of data is called data set and a single observation is called
data point.
➢ We classify data according to source and to form.
➢ By source, data may be either primary or secondary.
➢ Primary data refer to information which are gathered directly from an
original source, or which are based on direct or first-hand experiences.
➢ Secondary data refer to information which are previously gathered by
other individuals or agencies.
➢ By form, data may be qualitative or quantitative.
➢ Quantitative when data are measurable; qualitative when data are
description of the basic nature or characteristics of the objects of
investigation.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

1. Observation
2. Personal Interview
3. Questionnaire
4. Experiment Method
5. Telephone Surveys

Steps in Preparing a Study or Research Work

Steps that every researcher should observe in making a particular study.

The following guide questions will be helpful in preparing a study.
1. Is the study you are planning feasible or realistic? Is it attainable? Is it of
real value?
2. Do you have the resources such as the time, manpower and money
factors which are available to pursue the research?
3. Have you identified your population? In case the population is big,
samples are used instead of the population.
In determining the sample size needed, use the formula:

𝑁
𝑛 = 1 + 𝑁𝑒2

Where:
n = the sample size
N = the population size
e = the desired margin of error (percent allowance)

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD_PSU EL NIDO CAMPUS _MODULE 6

Example: Dr. Garin would like to know the reaction of PSU college students
regarding the increase of tuition fees. She assigned one staff to make
a survey. If she allows a margin of error of 5%, how many students must
she takes into her sample if there are 6580 students?

𝑁
Solution: 𝑛 = 1 + 𝑁𝑒2

6580
𝑛=
1 + 6580(0.05)2

6580
𝑛=
1 + 6580(0.0025)

6580
𝑛=
17.84

n = 377.077 or 377 students (sample)

➢ Sampling – is the process of choosing a representative portion of a

population.
➢ Sampling technique – is how samples are drawn from the population.

TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

1. Simple Random Sampling – all the items in the population have equal
chance of being chosen in the sample.
Ex. By lottery or by use of Table of Random Numbers

2. Systematic Sampling – obtained by starting at a random position and

selecting every 𝑘 𝑡ℎ element from the population until the desired
sample size is obtained.
▪ Elements are selected from the population at a uniform
interval.
Ex. You may choose every twentieth or every 7th.

3. Stratified Sampling – obtained by dividing the population into groups

called strata.
▪ To use stratified sampling, we divide the population into
relatively homogenous groups called strata.
▪ In stratified sampling, the distribution of sampling units is
proportionate to the total number of units in each stratum

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 4. Cluster Sampling – consists of selecting cluster of units in a population
and then performing a survey of each cluster.
▪ The selection of clusters could be based on some desired
feature of the population or could be a simple random of
clusters in the population.
Ex. Suppose that a sample of residents of a large city is
desired. Using cluster sampling, the entire city could be
divided by a city map into blocks (clusters) of households.

5. Multi – stage Sampling – this technique uses several stages or phrases in

getting the sample from general population. However, selection of the
sample is still done at random.
▪ Multi – stage sampling is useful in a nationwide study.

Lesson 3
Presentation of Data
➢ Information obtained through surveys and experiments are called raw
data.

Data can be presented in three forms:

1. Textual, where data is presented in paragraph form.
2. Tabular, where data is presented in rows and in columns.
3. Graphical, where data is presented in visual form.

➢ Tabulation is the process of condensing classified data and arranging

them in a table.
▪ Through this process, data can be more readily be
understood and comparison may easily be made.
➢ Graphs are nothing else but pictures of numerical data. A particular
graph would summarize and show visually what would have been
expressed in so many words.

Kinds of Graph or Diagram

1. Bar graph
2. Compound (multiple)bar chart
3. Component bar chart
4. Line graph
5. Pie chart or circle graph
6. Map graph
7. Pictograph

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 THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

➢ Frequency Distribution – any device, such as a graph or table, that

displays the values that a variable can assume along with the frequency
of occurrence of these values, either individually or as they are grouped
into a set of mutually exclusive and exhaustive intervals.
➢ Class Frequency – refers to the number of observations belonging to a
class interval.
➢ Class Interval – a grouping defined by a lower limit and an upper limit.
➢ Class Size or Class Width – numerical differences between the upper- and
lower-class boundaries of a class interval.
➢ Class Boundaries – obtained by lowering the lower-class limits by 0.5 and
raising the upper limits by 0.5. It is sometimes called the real or true limits.
➢ Class Mark – the midpoint between the upper- and lower-class
boundaries or limits of the class interval.

Steps in constructing a Frequency

1. Determine the range. It is the difference between the highest and the
lowest values in the list of data.
2. Determine the number of classes or class intervals desired; the number of
classes, usually from 6 to 16 is arbitrarily selected depending upon the size
of the data and spread of the values over which frequencies are found.
3. Determine the approximate size of the class intervals by ÷ the range by
the desired number of class intervals.
4. Write the class intervals starting with the lowest lower limit. The upper limit is
determined by the size of the class interval minus 1. Subsequent classes
shall be obtained in the same manner.
5. Determine the number of observations by tallying each value into each
class interval, thus, finding the class frequencies.
6. Compute for the class mark by adding the lower and upper limits of the
class interval, then dividing the sum by 2.

Example
Consider the raw data below as the daily salaries of 40 employees:

170 211 199 174 218 190 198 189

211 192 183 180 193 187 197 200
206 201 178 168 230 215 188 197
217 220 196 200 199 179 188 192
208 202 180 203 225 198 192 209

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 Solution:
Step 1. Range = highest value – lowest value
= 230 – 168
= 62
Step 2. Determine the class interval (Desired interval is 7)
Step 3. Class Interval Size = Range ÷ Desired intervals
62
= = 8.857 = 9
7

Step 4 – Step 5.
Based on the raw data above, we construct a frequency
distribution table.

Class Intervals Tally Frequency Class Mark

168 – 176 III 3 172
177 – 185 IIII 5 181
186 – 194 IIII - IIII 9 190
195 – 203 IIII – IIII - II 12 199
204 – 212 IIII 5 208
213 – 221 IIII 4 217
222 – 230 II 2 226
n = 40

THE CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

➢ Cumulative frequency distribution – a tabular arrangement of data by
class interval whose frequencies are cumulated.
▪ We obtain the entries in the cumulative frequency by adding
the number of observations in each interval to the cumulated
number of observations from the first interval through the
preceding interval inclusive.
▪ The cumulative frequency distributions are used if we
interested in the number of observations above or below a
point.

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 Two Kinds of Cumulative Frequency Distribution

1. “less than” cumulative frequency distribution (<cumf) – whose sum of

frequencies for each interval is less than the upper class boundary of the
interval they correspond to. It is sometimes called the “less than o give”.
2. “greater than” cumulative frequency distribution (>cumf) – whose sum of
frequencies for each class interval is greater than the lower class
boundary of the interval they correspond to. It is sometimes called the
“greater than o give”.

Example

Ages in years Frequency Less than Greater than

cumulative cumulative
frequency frequency
(<cumf) (>cumf)
20 – 24 10 10 100
25 – 29 19 29 90
30 – 34 27 56 71
35 – 39 18 74 44
40 – 44 10 84 26
45 – 49 6 90 16
50 – 54 5 95 10
55 – 59 3 98 5
60 – 64 2 100 2

• Each number in the less than cumulative frequency is interpreted as

follows:
1. Ten employees are less than 24.5
2. 29 are less than 29.5
3. 56 are less than 34.5; and so forth

RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

➢ The relative frequency distribution is the ratio of observation in a class to
the total observations in all classes.
➢ The relative frequency for each class interval is obtained by dividing the
class frequency by the total frequency.
➢ The data obtained is expressed in percent.
➢ The cumulative relative frequency distribution is obtained by adding the
relative frequencies.
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD_PSU EL NIDO CAMPUS _MODULE 6
 Example

Weekly Frequency Relative Frequency Cumulative Relative

Commission Frequency
400 – 499 2 4% 4%
500 – 599 5 10% 14%
600 – 699 8 16% 30%
700 – 799 10 20% 50%
800 – 899 12 24% 74%
900 – 999 6 12% 88%
1000 – 1099 5 10% 98%
1100 – 1199 2 4% 100%

• Each number in the relative frequency distribution is interpreted as

follows:4% of the salesman have weekly commission from Php400 to
Php499;10% have weekly commission from Php500 to Php599; and
so on.
• While each in the cumulative relative frequency is interpreted as
14% have weekly commission less than Php599.5; 30% have weekly
commission less than Php699.5 and so forth

Evaluation
Answer the following as indicated.

A. True or False
Write true if the statement is correct, false if it is incorrect.
______1. “Outcome of s beauty contest” is an example of interval scale.
______2. A sample is a finite number of objects selected from the population.
______3. Quantitative when data are description of the basic nature of the
objects of investigation.
______4. Information obtained through surveys and experiments are called raw
data.
______5. It is not necessary that the index of summation be a subscript.

B. Identification
Identify what is ask.
__________1. It is a totality of all actual or conceivable objects of a certain class
under consideration.

MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD_PSU EL NIDO CAMPUS _MODULE 6

__________2. It is the collection of observation or values it assumes in the sample.
__________3. It simply identifies categories of the variable.
__________4. It is the process of choosing a representative portion of a
population.
__________5. It is how samples are drawn from the population.

C. Classify the following as qualitative or quantitative.

1. Age of freshman students _____________
2. Faculty rank _____________
3. Per capita income of residents of El Nido _____________
4. Brand of television set _____________
5. Number of students in a classroom _____________

D. Identify the most informative scale of measurement that applies (nominal,

ordinal, interval, or ratio).

1. Age _____________
2. Monthly income _____________
3. Phone number _____________
4. The divorce rate _____________
5. An opinion on political issue _____________

E. Complete the frequency table below. (15pts)

Class Tally Frequency <cumf >cumf Relative Cumulative
Interval Frequency Relative
Frequency
5 – 10 IIII
11 – 15 IIII – I
16 – 20 IIII – II
21 – 25 IIII – III
26 – 30 IIII
31 – 35 III
36 – 40 II
41 – 45 I

Reference:

Lecture Notes in Statistics with Demography. Central Philippine University, Iloilo

City (2007 Edition), 1 – 36

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