EEE223

ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

TİME-DEPENDENT (AC) CİRCUİT ANALYSİS

Sınusoidal Steady-state Phasor Analysis
 Time-Dependent (AC) Circuit Analysis

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Time-Dependent (AC) Circuit Analysis

• Signals in electric power systems and in communications are usually

sinusoidal or time dependent.
• Phasor analysis will be used to determine the steady-state response
of any linear system excited by a periodic signal.
• The superposition principle allows the phasor technique to be
extended to determine the system response of a linear system.

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What is a Sinusoidal Signal?
• A sinusoidal signal is an electrical signal which
the value of the voltage or current varies
sinusoidally.
• Difference from transient analysis is the signal
voltage and current varies by time.
• Every kind of electrical alternative current (AC)
signal (square wave, triangular wave, etc.) can
be generated with sum of sinusoidal signals.
• It has a constant maxima and minima, and a
constant period

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Why a Sinusoidal Signal?

• The generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption of electric energy

occur under essentially sinusoidal steady-state conditions.
• Using superposition notion, we can calculate the behavior of the linear circuit
sourced with nonsinusoidal signals utilising sinusoidal signal.

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The Sinusoidal Source
• A sinusoidal signal can be expressed as in sine or cosine function with only a
phase difference.

•  = 2f →  : angular frequency

• T → period (second) ;
• f → frequency (Hertz)
• Vm → Maximum amplitude
•  → Phase angle

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The Sinusoidal Source
• Phase angle determines the value of the sinusoidal function at t = 0
• t and  must be in radian unit for calculation.
• The conversion from radians to degrees:

• Alternative and periodic signals are mentioned

with their Root Mean Square (rms) value where
it can be calculated as:

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The Sinusoidal Source
• rms value of a sinusoidal voltage source

• Any sinusoidal signal can be described by knowledge of frequency, phase angle,

and amplitude (either the maximum or the rms)
• General formulation for rms value of a function f(t) with a period of T is:

t 0 +T
1
f rms =
T 
t0
f 2 (t )dt

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 Example
Question: Solution:
A sinusoidal current has a maximum a) The current passes through one
amplitude of 20 A. The current passes complete cycle in 1ms.
through one complete cycle in 1 ms. The
magnitude of the current at zero time is → T = 1ms
10 A. → f = 1/T = 1000Hz = 1kHz.
a) What is the frequency of the current a)  = 2f = 2000 rad/s.
in hertz?
b) i (t ) = I m cos(t +  )
b)What is the frequency in radians per
second? = 20 cos(2000t +  )

c) Write the expression for i(t) using the i (0) = 10 A → 10 = 20 cos( ) →  = 60o
cosine function. Express  in degrees. i (t ) = 20 cos((2000t + 60o )
d)What is the rms value of the current? c) irms = Im / 2 = 20 / 2 = 14.14 A
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The Sinusoidal Response
• Assume the voltage over a capacitor is defined as:
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑉𝐶 sin(ω𝑡 + ϕ)
• Then the current value of capacitor is:
𝑑𝑣𝑐 Current is also sinusoidal with same
𝑖𝑐 = 𝐶. = 𝜔𝐶. cos(𝜔𝑡 + ϕ)
𝑑𝑡 frequency
• Assume the current through an inductor is defined as:
𝑖𝑐 = 𝐼𝐿 c𝑜𝑠(ω𝑡 + ϕ)
• Then the voltage value of inductor is:
𝑑𝑖𝐿 Voltage is also sinusoidal with same
𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿. = −𝜔𝐿. 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + ϕ)
𝑑𝑡 frequency

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The Sinusoidal Source

Characteristics of the steady-state solution:

1. The steady-state solution is a sinusoidal function.
2. The frequency of the response signal in a linear circuit is identical to the
frequency of the source signal.
3. The maximum amplitude of the steady-state response, in general, differs from
the maximum amplitude of the source.
4. The phase angle of the response signal, in general, differs from the phase angle
of the source.

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The Phasor
• The Phasor method is a technique for calculating the steady-state response
directly,
• The phasor concept is rooted in Euler’s identity,

R is the operation of taking

real part of complex value
Phasor transform
P is transformation operation
from sinusoidal signal to pahsor.
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The Phasor
• The phasor transform transfers the sinusoidal function from the time domain to the
complex-number domain, which is also called the frequency domain.
• To differ from signal amplitude, a phasor quantity represented by using a boldface
letter.
• Rectangular form of phasor:

• The angle notation:

• The phasor carries only amplitude and phase information.

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Inverse Phasor Transform

The inverse phasor transform of 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗

• The phasor transform is useful in circuit analysis because it reduces the task of
finding the maximum amplitude and phase angle of the steady-state sinusoidal
response to the algebra of complex numbers.

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Circuit Laws with phasor
• Superposition

• KCL:
𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑰𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝑰𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕

• KVL:

෍ 𝑣𝑖 = 0 ෍ 𝑽𝒊 = 0

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 Example 2

Solution

y1 = 20 cos ( t - 30) = 20 . cos t . cos 30 + 20 . sin t . sin 30 ;

y2 = 40 cos ( t + 60) = 40 . cos t . cos 60 - 40 . sin t . sin 60 ;

y = y1 + y2 = (20 cos 30 + 40 cos 60) cos t + (20 sin 30 - 40 sin 60) sin t
= 37.32 cos t - 24.64 sin t.

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 Example 2 - Solution

y = y1 + y2 = 37.32 cos t - 24.64 sin t.

y = 44.72 cos (t + 33.43 ).

b) Using phasors:
y = y1 + y2 → Y = Y1 + Y2
y1 = 20 cos (t - 30) → 20 ∠30𝑜
y1 = 40 cos (t + 60) → 40 ∠60𝑜

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 Example 2 - Solution

b) y

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The Passive Circuit Elements in the
Frequency Domain
• To analyse the circuit in frequency domain, with phasor, the ideal circuit elements
and Kirchhoff’s laws must be turned into frequency domain.
The V-I Relationship for a Resistor
• If signal source is sinusoidal, using Ohm’s law:

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The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain

The V-I Relationship for a Resistor

The signals are said to be in phase

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The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain

The V-I Relationship for an Inductor

𝑗 𝜃 −90𝑜
𝑽 = − 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑖

𝑗𝜃 −𝑗90𝑜
𝑽 = − 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑒𝑖 = − 𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖 (cos 90𝑜 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 90𝑜 )
𝑽 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿𝐼𝑚 𝑒 𝑗𝜃𝑖

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The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain

The V-I Relationship for an Inductor

voltage leading current or current lagging voltage

A phase shift of 90o corresponds to one-fourth of a period;

hence the voltage leads the current by T/4 or 1/4f second
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The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain

The V-I Relationship for an Capacitor

the current leads the voltage by 90o

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The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain

Impedance and Reactance

• Z represents the impedance

• Impedance is measured in ohms.
• Impedance is a complex number, it is not a phasor.
• Thus, although all phasors are complex numbers, not all complex numbers are
phasors
• The imaginary part of the impedance is called reactance.

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The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain

Impedance and Reactance

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Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain
Assume:
v1 + v2 + …+ vn = 0,
Vm1 cos (t + 1) + Vm2 cos (t + 2) + … + Vmn cos (t + n) = 0.

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Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law in the Frequency Domain

• For a closed loop:
v1 + v2 + …+ vn = 0,

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Kirchhoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain

Kirchhoff’s Current Law in the Frequency Domain

For current entering a node:
i1 + i2 + …+ in = 0,

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Series, Parallel, and Delta-to-Wye
Simplifications
• Combining Impedances in Series

The equivalent impedance:

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 Example
• A 90 resistor, a 32mH inductor, and a 5F capacitor are connected in series
across the terminals of a sinusoidal voltage source. The steady-state expression
for the source source voltage is vs = 750 cos(5000t + 30) V.
a) Construct the frequency-domain equivalent circuit.
b) Calculate the steady-state current i by the phasor method.

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 Example - Solution
a) Equivalent circuit in the frequency-domain
vs = 750 cos(5000t + 30) V →  = 5000 rad/s.

32 mH →

5F →

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 Example - Solution
b) The steady-state current i :

 = 5000 rad/s

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Series, Parallel, and Delta-to-Wye
Simplifications
• Combining Impedances in Parallel

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Series, Parallel, and Delta-to-Wye
Simplifications
• Combining Impedances in Parallel
Two impedances in parallel

Admittance, defined as the reciprocal of impedance:

G, is called conductance;
B, is called susceptance;

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Series, Parallel, and Delta-to-Wye
Simplifications

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Series, Parallel, and Delta-to-Wye
Simplifications
• Delta-to-Wye Transformations

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Source Transformations and
Thévenin-Norton Equivalent Circuits

A source transformation in the

frequency domain.

The frequency-domain version of (a) a Thévenin and (b) Norton equivalent circuits
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 Example 4
• Use the concept of source transformation to find the phasor voltage,
V0;

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 Example 4 - Solution

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 Example 4 - Solution

𝑉 36 − 𝑗12 36 − 𝑗12
𝐼0 = = =
𝑍 1.8 + 𝑗2.4 + 0.2 + 𝑗0.6 + 10 ± 𝑗19 12 − 𝑗16
= 1.56 + 𝑗1.08A

𝑉0 = 𝐼0 . 10 − 𝑗19 = (1.56 + 𝑗1.08) 10 − 𝑗19

=36.12 –j18.84V

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 SİNUSOİDAL STEADY-STATE
POWER CALCULATİONS

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Instantaneous Power
• Using the passive sign convention, the power at any instant of
time is

which is called instantaneous power.

• Here, v and i are steady-.state sinusoidal signals

• If it’s taken as zero time corresponds to the instant that the current is passing
through a positive maximum. Then:

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Instantaneous Power

• The frequency of the instantaneous power is twice the frequency of the voltage
or current.

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Instantaneous Power
Example for v = 60 and i = 0 • The frequency of the
instantaneous power is twice the
frequency of the voltage or
current.
• The instantaneous power may be
negative for a portion of each
cycle, even if the network between
the terminals is passive.
• In a completely passive network,
negative power implies that energy
stored in the inductors or
capacitors is now being extracted

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Average and Reactive Power

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Power for Purely Resistive Circuits

 = 377 rad/s.

instantaneous real power.

• the instantaneous real power can

never be negative in a purely
resistive network
• Power cannot be extracted from a
purely resistive network.
• All the electric energy is dissipated
in the form of thermal energy

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Power for Purely Inductive Circuits

• i = v – 90 → the current lags the voltage by 90

• The instantaneous power

• The average power is zero.

• Transformation of energy from electric to nonelectric form takes place.
• The instantaneous power at the terminals in a purely inductive circuit is
continually exchanged between the circuit and the source driving the circuit, at a
frequency of 2.
• When p is positive, energy is being stored in the magnetic fields associated with the
inductive elements,
• when p is negative, energy is being extracted from the magnetic fields.

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Power for Purely Inductive Circuits

• The name reactive power comes from

the characterization of an inductor as a
reactive element; its impedance is
purely reactive.
• Average power P and reactive power Q
carry the same dimension.
• To distinguish between average and
reactive power, we use
• the units watt (W) for average
power
• var (volt-amp reactive, or VAR) for
reactive power

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Power for Purely Capacitive Circuits

• i = v + 90 → the current leads the voltage by 90

• The instantaneous power

• The average power is zero.

• Any transformation of energy from electric to nonelectric form takes place.
• The instantaneous power at the terminals in a purely capacitive circuit is
continually exchanged between the circuit and the source driving the circuit, at a
frequency of 2.
• When p is positive, energy is being extracted from the magnetic fields associated
with the capacitive elements,
• when p is negative, energy is being stored in the magnetic fields.

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Power for Purely Capacitive Circuits

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Power Factor

• v - i → power factor angle.

• cos(v - i) → power factor → pf
• sin(v - i) → reactive factor → rf
• Because cos(v - i) = cos(i - v)
• Knowing the value of the power factor does not tell you the value of the power
factor angle,
• The behaviour must be defined as:
• lagging power factor → current lags voltage → an inductive load
• leading power factor. → current leads voltage → a capacitive load

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Complex Power

• Complex power is the complex sum of real power and reactive power

• Complex power is the same as average or reactive power in unit.

• However, to distinguish complex power from either average or reactive power,
we use the units volt-amps (VA).
• Thus we use:
• volt-amps → complex power,
• watts → average power,
• vars → reactive power

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Complex Power

The magnitude of complex power is referred to as apparent power

Apparent power is also measured in volt-amps.

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 Example 1
a. Calculate the average power and the reactive power at the terminals of the
network shown in the figure if

b. State whether the network inside the box is absorbing or delivering average power.
c. State whether the network inside the box is absorbing or supplying magnetizing
VARs.

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 Example 1 - Solution
a.

b. Because of negative real (average) power, the network inside the box is delivering
average power to the terminals.
c. The passive sign convention means that, because Q is positive, the network inside
the box is absorbing magnetizing VARs at its terminals.
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The rms Value and Power Calculations

• The average power delivered to the resistor shown in the circuit:

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The rms Value and Power Calculations

• Given an equivalent resistive load, R, and an equivalent time period, T, the rms
value of a sinusoidal source delivers the same energy to R as does a dc source of
the same value.
• For example, a dc source of 100 V delivers the same energy in T seconds that a
sinusoidal source of 100 Vrms delivers, assuming equivalent load resistances.

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The rms Value and Power Calculations

• The average power and the reactive power can be written in terms of effective
values as

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑉𝑒𝑓𝑓

𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓

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The rms Value and Power Calculations

• In daily usage, the sinusoidal signal parameters all given in rms value.
• For example appliances such as electric lamps, irons, and toasters all carry rms
ratings on their nameplates.
• For example, a 120 V, 100 W lamp has a resistance of:

and draws an rms current of: or 0.833 A.

The peak value of the lamp current is:

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 Example 2
a) A sinusoidal voltage having a maximum amplitude of 625 V is applied to the
terminals of a 50 resistor. Find the average power delivered to the resistor.
b) Repeat (a) by first finding the current in the resistor.

Solution:
a) The rms value of the sinusoidal voltage is:

The average power delivered to the resistor is

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 Example 2 - Solution:
b) Repeat (a) by first finding the current in the resistor.

• The maximum amplitude of the current in the resistor is

• The rms value of the current is:

• The average power delivered to the resistor is

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 Example 3
An electrical load operates at 240 V rms. The load absorbs an average power of 8 kW
at a lagging power factor of 0.8.
a) Calculate the complex power of the load.
b) Calculate the impedance of the load.

Solution:
a) The power factor is described as lagging, so we know that the load is inductive and
that the algebraic sign of the reactive power is positive. From the power triangle:

cos(v - i) → power factor → pf = 0.8 → cos() = 0.8 → sin() = 0.6

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 Example 3 - Solution:

Complex power

b) Average Power: P = 8kW

 is positive because the power factor is lagging,

indicating an inductive load.

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 Example 3 - Solution :

We compute the magnitude of the load impedance from its definition as the ratio of
the magnitude of the voltage to the magnitude of the current

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Power Calculations

Complex power

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Power Calculations

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 Example 4
Calculate the average power, reactive power and complex power at the terminals of
the network shown in the figure if

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Alternate Forms for Complex Power

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Alternate Forms for Complex Power

if Z is a pure resistive element

if Z is a pure reactive element

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 Example 5
In the circuit shown in the Figure, a
load having an impedance of 39+j26 
is fed from a voltage source through a
line having an impedance of 1+j4 .
The effective, or rms, value of the
source voltage is 250 V.

a) Calculate the load current IL and voltage VL.

b) Calculate the average and reactive power delivered to the load.
c) Calculate the average and reactive power delivered to the line.
d) Calculate the average and reactive power supplied by the source.

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 Example 5 - Solution
a) Calculate the load current IL and
voltage VL.
Ztotal = Zline + Zload
= 39 + j26 + 1 + j4 = 40 + j 30

Because the voltage is given in terms of its

rms value, the current also is rms

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 Example 5 - Solution
b) Calculate the average and reactive
power delivered to the load

average reactive
power of power of
975 W 650 VAR

c) Calculate the average and reactive power delivered to the line.

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 Example 5 - Solution
d) Calculate the average and reactive
power supplied by the source

- Ssource = Sline + Sload

= 25 + j100 + 975 + j650
= 1000 + j750 VA

OR

The minus sign implies that both average power and magnetizing reactive power are being
delivered by the source.

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 ExERCISES

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 Exercise 1
Question: Solution:
A sinusoidal voltage is given by the a) v(t ) = Vm cos(t +  )
expression
→  = 120 rad/s
v(t ) = 300 cos(120t + 30o )
 = 2 / T → T = 2 / 
a) What is the period of the voltage in
milliseconds? T = 2 / 120 = 0.01667 s = 16.667 ms

b)What is the frequency in hertz? b) f = 1/ T = 60Hz

c) What is the magnitude of v at t = c) v(2.778m) = 300 cos(120 .( 2.778 x10 −3 ) + 30 )
2.778ms? = cos(60 + 30 ) = 0
d)What is the rms value of v?
d) 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 300/ 2 =212.13V

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 Example 2
Question: Solution:
We can translate the sine function to a)
the cosine function by subtracting 90
(/2 rad) from the argument of the
sine function.
a) Verify this translation by showing
that
sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 = cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃 − 90𝑜
b) Use the result in (a) to express
b)
sin 𝜔𝑡 + 30𝑜
as a cosine function.

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 Example 3
Question:
• Calculate the rms value of the periodic triangular current shown in Figure. Express
your answer in terms of the peak current Ip.

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 Example 3 - Solution

The analytical expression for i in the interval 0 to T/4 is

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 Example 2
• The sinusoidal current source in the circuit produces the current is = 8
cos(200.000t) A.
a) Construct the frequency-domain equivalent circuit.
b) Find the steady-state expressions for v , i1 , i2 and i3 current i by the phasor
method.

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 Example 2 - Solution
a) Construct the frequency-domain equivalent circuit.
is = 8 cos(200.000t) A →80 and  = 200 Krad/s
10 → 10
10 → 6
1F → −𝑗5 

40H → 𝑍𝐿 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗 200.103 . 40.10−6 = 𝑗8 

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 Example 2 - Solution
b) Steady-state expressions oDenklemi buraya yazın.f v , i1 , i2 and i3.

Z = 10  // (6+j8)  //-j5 

10.(6+𝑗8) 10 (6+𝑗8) 5(3+𝑗4)

10  // (6+j8)  = = = = Zx
10+(6+𝑗8) 16+𝑗8 4+𝑗2

You can not add two complex value using phasor. So that you have to make calculation in
complex domain first

5 3+𝑗4 5 3+𝑗4 .(−𝑗5)

.(−𝑗5)
𝑍3 // - j5  =
4+𝑗2 4+𝑗2
5(3+𝑗4) = 5 3+𝑗4 −𝑗5(4+𝑗2) = 4 − 𝑗3 = 5∠ − 36,87
4+𝑗2
−𝑗5)
4+𝑗2

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 Example 2 - Solution
b) Steady-state expressions of v , i1 , i2 and i3.

V = ZI = 5-36,87 . 80 = 40-36,87

𝑉
I=
𝑍

Checking the computations

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 Example 2 - Solution
b) Steady-state expressions of v , i1 , i2 and i3.

V = 40-36,87

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 Example 3
• Use a -to-Y impedance transformation to find I0, I1, I2, I3, I4, I5, V1, V2
For lower  circuit:
Z0 + Z1 + Z2 = 30 + j40

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 Example 3 - Solution

I0 =Ind
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 Example 3 - Solution
I0 =Ind

Checking the calculations

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 Example 3 - Solution
Vbd = V - Vab

Vcd = V - Vac

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 Example 3 - Solution

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 Example 5
• Find the Thévenin equivalent circuit with respect to terminals a,b for
the given circuit;

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 Example 5 - Solution

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 Example 5 - Solution

For the closed loop:

And the realtion of dependent source:

Then the loop current:

Thevenin voltage

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 Example 5 - Solution
To detemine the Thevenin empedance, test voltage is applied and independent
zources ar cancelled.

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 Sources
• Electric Circuits, 10E – Nilsson-Riedel, Pearson, 2015.

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