READING PASSAGE 1

You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 1-16, which are based on Reading
Passage 1 below​

Evolution of the Calculator

Before the invention of the electronic calculator, people used a number of devices to help
them with mathematical calculations.

Humans have been using mathematics for so long that it is uncertain what the earliest aids to
mental arithmetic were. But the first was probably our fingers, and the second was small piles
of stones which were used to keep a record of the objects being counted. However, these
methods were insufficient, only useful for minimal amounts and, in the case of fingers, could
only be employed for short periods before sore muscles set in. With the advent of prehistoric
agriculture, commerce and astronomy, maintaining large piles of stones for counting became
cumbersome and hopelessly inadequate.

A rudimentary version of the abacus, or counting frame, dating to around 2,500 BCE, was
developed in Sumeria (present day Iraq) and subsequently spread to Europe and the rest of
Asia. As the abacus was refined with the use of string and beads, calculations that had been
considered extremely difficult became routine. For the next 4,500 years, the abacus was
humanity’s main counting tool and is still used in parts of Asia. However, it has its limitations;
it is unable to multiply and divide as efficiently as it adds and subtracts.

In 1617, Scottish mathematician John Napier published a document entitled Rabdology

(calculation with rods) describing a device that came to be known as Napier’s bones. The
‘bones’ are thin rods, inscribed with multiplication tables. The user calculates the sum by
adjusting the rods’ vertical alignment, and then reads off the multiplication totals horizontally.
With a few hours of study, the average person can use a set to solve large multiplication and
division problems. Experts can even use them for difficult calculations such as extracting
square roots from fairly large numbers. However, these manually operated devices were not
calculators; although the simplification of the sums had been achieved, a human operator still
had to perform them mentally.

In 1642, Blaise Pascal invented the Pascal calculator, a device truly capable of performing
mathematical calculations by means of a clockwork-type mechanism. It was ingenious,
attempting arithmetic functions previously thought impossible and it eventually performed all
four arithmetic operations without relying on intelligence. It could add and subtract two
numbers directly, and multiply and divide by repetition, but the machine was never a
commercial success. This was due to the fact that the techniques for producing the interior
parts were expensive to implement. In truth, the Pascal calculator did not replace Napier’s
bones or the abacus in many accountants’ offices.

Thomas de Colmar, a French inventor and entrepreneur, invented and produced the first
mechanical calculator robust enough for everyday use. It was known as the Arithmometer.
Manufactured in 1851, this invention saw the rapid rise of faster calculating machines that
could add, subtract, multiply and divide large numbers with greater accuracy. It became the
first commercially successful unit. However, its biggest disadvantage was its size; it often
filled a desktop and weighed 15 kilograms or more.

Another leading figure in the development of the calculator was Curt Herzstark. Born in
Vienna, Austria, in 1902 into a family that produced calculators and other office machines, he
regularly travelled through the former Austro-Hungarian Empire selling mechanical
calculators to banks and other businesses and it was on these travels that he heard the same
complaints from his customers. The impracticalities of the mechanical calculators in use was
hindering them. They were large and heavy.

For 10 years, Herzstark thought about the problem of how to make calculators significantly
smaller, but it was far from a simple task. His answer was to forget about the inside of his tiny
calculator and concentrate first on designing the outside. Then in 1937, he had a
breakthrough and began work on a calculator that was portable so it could be transported
easily. The unit was approximately 10 centimetres high and only five centimetres in diameter
with a cylindrical body. A year later, Herzstark had a finished design that achieved everything
he wanted. In 1945, he took his plans to Vienna and was able to convince the Prince of
Liechtenstein to provide financial backing for his Curta calculator.

His invention was a work of staggering ingenuity. From a distance, it resembles a short,
stocky pepper grinder, yet it contains more than 600 precision parts, allowing the operator to
add, subtract, multiply and perform long division with a mere turn of the crank. Advanced
users could even calculate natural logs and square roots. Approximately 150,000 Curta
calculators were made between 1948 and 1970, but by the early 1970s electronic pocket
calculators ended the manufacture of mechanical calculators. However, the Curta still
remains popular and people buy them to add to their collections. No truly mechanical
calculators have been invented since; the Curta was the best and the last of its kind.
QUESTIONS 1 – 6

Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?

In boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet, write:

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

1.​ Counting methods before the abacus were limited to small quantities.

2.​ Development of trade helped spread the use of the abacus to Europe.

3.​ For 4,500 years, the abacus was constantly being improved.

4.​ The abacus can carry out some calculation tasks better than other tasks.

5. A complex knowledge of arithmetic was essential when using Napier’s bones.

6. Napier’s bones were automated counting devices.

QUESTIONS 7 – 16

Complete the table below.

Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Write your answers in boxes 7-16 on your answer sheet.

Invention​ Inventor​ Details

• 7 ……… was not needed to carry out

Pascal Calculator​ Blaise Pascal calculations
• high price was due to manufacturing 8 ……….

• the first of several devices with

Arithmometer Thomas de improved 9 ……….
Colmar • its 10 ………. was impractical

• people’s 11 ………. About previous devices led

to its invention
• his design initially focused on the 12 ………. Of
the device
Curta​ Curt Herzstark • because it was so small, it was 13 ……….
• the device received 14 ………. from a royal
• it was operated by moving a 15 ……….
• Curta calculations can be found today
in 16 ……….
1.​ device – A tool or machine made for a specific job, like a calculator.
2.​ mathematical calculation – Using numbers to solve problems or do math.
3.​ aid – Something that helps you do a task.
4.​ mental – Related to thinking or the mind.
5.​ a pile of – A stack or heap of things on top of each other.
6.​ keep a record – To write down or save information for later.
7.​ insufficient – Not enough; too little.
8.​ employ – To use something.
9.​ set in – To start and continue (e.g., pain starts and doesn’t stop).
10.​with the advent of – When something new arrives or begins.
11.​commerce – Buying and selling things, especially in large amounts.
12.​maintain – To keep something working or in good condition.
13.​cumbersome – Big, heavy, and hard to move or use.
14.​inadequate – Not good enough for a purpose.
15.​hopelessly – In a way that shows no chance of success.
16.​rudimentary – Very basic; not advanced.
17.​date to – To start or exist from a certain time in history.
18.​subsequently – After something happens.
19.​refine – To make something better by improving it.
20.​string – A thin piece of material used to tie things together.
21.​bead – A small, round object used for counting or decoration.
22.​subtract – To take one number away from another.
23.​entitle – To give a name or title to something.
24.​rod – A thin, straight stick or bar.
25.​inscribe – To write or carve words on something.
26.​multiplication table – A chart that shows the results of multiplying numbers.
27.​adjust – To change something slightly to make it better.
28.​vertical alignment – Arranging things in a straight up-and-down line.
29.​extract – To take something out, often with effort.
30.​manually – Done by hand, not by a machine.
31.​simplification – Making something easier or less complicated.
32.​capable – Able to do something well.
33.​means of – A way or method to do something.
34.​ingenious – Very clever and creative.
35.​attempt – To try to do something.
36.​rely on – To depend on someone or something for help.
37.​intelligence – The ability to learn, understand, and think.
38.​commercial success – When something becomes popular or makes money.
39.​interior part – The inside pieces of a machine or device.
40.​implement – To start using a plan or system.
41.​entrepreneur – A person who starts and runs a business.
42.​robust – Strong and able to handle difficult conditions.
43.​unit – A single, complete thing or device.
44.​weigh – To measure how heavy something is.
45.​leading figure – An important or famous person in a field.
46.​impracticality – When something is not useful or hard to use in real life.
47.​hinder – To make it harder for someone to do something.
48.​far from smth – Not close to achieving something.
49.​breakthrough – A big discovery or success.
50.​portable – Easy to carry or move around.
51.​convince – To make someone believe or agree with you.
52.​financial backing – Money or support given to help a project.
53.​staggering ingenuity – Amazing creativity or cleverness.
54.​resemble – To look like or be similar to something else.
55.​stocky – Short and strong.
56.​precision – Being exact or accurate.
57.​division – Separating something into parts.
58.​mere – Used to show something is small or not important.
59.​carry out – To do or complete a task.
60.​complex knowledge – A deep understanding of difficult things.
61.​impractical – Not useful or hard to use in real life.
62.​royal – Related to a king, queen, or their family.