MODULE FOR THEORY OF STRUCTURES I

Habtamu G.

FEDERAL TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING INSTITUTE

c

CIVIL TECHNOLOGY FACULTY BUILDING

FACULTY OF CIVIL TECHNOLOGY
CONSTRUCTION
c TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT

CIVIL TECHNOLOGY FACULTY BUILDING

DEPARTMENT OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY- SUMMER – DEGREE PROGRAM
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT
c

CIVIL TECHNOLOGY FACULTY BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT

FEBRUARY 2024

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 BCTe3020 Theory of Structures I

Table of Content

1. Stability & Determinacy of Structures

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Stability of Structures
1.3 Determinacy of Structures
2. Loads on Structures
2.1. Dead Load
2.2. Live Load
2.3. Environmental Loads (wind loads, Earthquake forces, . ..)
2.4. Hydrostatic and Soil Pressures
2.5. Load Combinations
3. Deflections of Statically Determinate Structures
3.1 Direct Integration Method
3.2 Moment-Area Method
3.3 Conjugate-Beam Method
3.4 Virtual Work Method
3.5 Graphical Multiplication
3.6 Castigliano's 2nd Theorem
3.7 Betti's law and Maxwell's of reciprocal deflections
4. Consistent Deformation Method
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Analysis of Indeterminate beams
4.3 Analysis of Indeterminate Trusses
4.4 Three moment Equation for beams
5. Influence Lines (IL) for Determinate Structures
5.1 IL for Beams (IL for reactions, shear forces and bending moment)
5.2 IL for panelled girders
5.3 IL for trusses

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References
1. Hibbeler, Structural Analysis, Published by Pearson Prentice Hall, Pearson Education, Inc
2. A. Kassimali, Structural Analysis, ,4* Edition, SI, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
3. Harry H. West and L.F. Geshwindner, Fundamentals of Structural Analysis 2nd ed. 2002
4. Nigussie Tebeje (Prof.), Statically Indeterminate Structural Analysis, AAU press 1984
5. ES EN 1991 1-1:2015 (Actions on structures Part 1:1 General actions -Densities, self-weight,
imposed loads for buildings)
6. ES EN 1991 1-4:2015 (Actions on structures Part 1:1 General actions —Wind actions)
7. ES EN1998 1-1:2015 (Design of structures for Earthquake Resistance - Part 1: General rules,
seismic actions and rules for buildings)

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 CHAPTER 1 :- STABILITY & DETERMINACY OF STRUCTURES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support loads. The fundamental purpose of
a structure is to transmit loads from the point of application to the point of support and through the
foundations to the ground.
Before going into the analysis of any structure, it is necessary to identify its statical determinacy
(classification), i.e., whether it is determinate or indeterminate, stable or unstable. An unstable arrangement
of supports and structural members should be avoided.
All structures are subjected to loads from their functions and to other unavoidable loads.
Establishment of the loads that act on a structure is one of the most difficult and yet important steps in the
design process.
In this chapter; criteria for statically classification will be established and different structures will be
checked for stability and determinacy.
1.2 STABILITY OF STRUCTURES
A stable structure is the one, which remains stable and can support any conceivable (imaginable)
system of applied loads. Therefore, we do not consider the types of loads, their number and their points of
application for deciding the stability or determinacy of the structure. Normally internal and external
stability of a structure should be checked separately and if it's overall stable then total degree of
indeterminacy should be checked.
To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not only necessary to satisfy the equations
of equilibrium, but the members must also be properly held or, constrained by their supports. In structural
analysis, a structure is said to be stable when it can support any possible system of applied loads.
A structure in which there are insufficient numbers of reactions to prevent motion from taking place
is called an unstable structure. This is external instability.
What matters is not only the number of support reactions but also their arrangement. Structures for
which the numbers of reaction components are greater than or equal to the number of available equilibrium
equations but that are unstable due to arrangement of these reaction components are said to be geometrically
unstable.
When the reaction elements are three or more like supports that are either parallel or concurrent, they
are not sufficient to maintain static equilibrium.
For the case of parallel reactions, they will offer no resistance to horizontal motion, thus making the
arrangement unstable. The point of intersection of the concurrent reactions becomes an instantaneous center
of rotation and the system is instantaneously unstable.
The stable fundamental element of a plane truss is a triangular arrangement of three members. A truss
may have internal instability if four members are used to form an element.
In conclusion, the stability of structures depends on the number and geometric arrangement of reactions
and structural members rather than on the strength of individual member or supports. Despite the possibility that
an unstable structure could become stable under a particular system of applied loads, the structure is classified
as an unstable structure.

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 A stable structure should have at least three reactive components, (which may not always be sufficient)
for external stability of a 2-D structure, which are non-concurrent and non-parallel.

1.3 DETERMINACY OF STRUCTURES

When all forces in a structure can be determined strictly from equilibrium equations, the structure is
referred to as statically determinate. Structures having more unknown forces than available equilibrium
equations are called statically indeterminate.
A statically indeterminate structure is one that cannot be analysed by the equations of static equilibrium
alone. Indeterminacy is introduced in structures on account of functional requirements, limitations on types of
framing, need for stiffness and often by the nature of inherent continuity introduced by the type of material used
like reinforced concrete.
A structure is statically indeterminate when it possesses more members or is supported by more reactive
restraints than are strictly necessary for stability (and equilibrium). The excess members or restraints are called
redundant. The degree of indeterminacy is the number of unknowns in excess of the available equilibrium
equations. In the analysis of indeterminate structures, therefore, ways of establishing additional equations must
be sought. These additional equations may be derived from compatibility of deformation or from conditions of
symmetry. This additional task would make the analysis of indeterminate structures more difficult than their
determinate counterparts.
Indeterminate structures have some advantages and disadvantages over determinate ones. One obvious
disadvantage is the computational difficulty involved when establishing the required additional equations.
Another disadvantage is that indeterminate structures will be stressed due to differential settlement of supports,
temperature changes and errors in fabrication of members. On the other hand, however, indeterminate structures
are stiffer and in the case of over loads indeterminate structures can provide an advantage of redistribution of
loads within the structure.
The indeterminacy of a structure can be external (with respect to reactions) or internal (with respect to
member forces). The question of identifying external or internal indeterminacy is largely of academic interest.
What is of primary importance is the total degree of indeterminacy, Nevertheless, determining external and
internal indeterminacy is desirable as a method to evaluate the total degree of indeterminacy.
A structure is internally indeterminate when it is not possible to determine all internal forces by using the
equations of static equilibrium. For the great majority of structures, the question of whether or not they are
indeterminate can be decided by inspection. For certain structures this is not so, and for these types rules have
to be established. The internal indeterminacy of trusses will be first considered, and then that of continuous
frames.

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1.4 CRITERIA FOR STABILITY AND DETERMINACY OF STRUCTURES-TRUSSES, BEAMS AND
FRAMES
Internal stability of structures and determining which conditions exist in a given case need experience,
especially for trusses. In some cases, the structure is different from what our mathematical criteria tell us.
Therefore, stability of trusses is most easily settled by inspection.
It is convenient to consider stability and determinacy of structures as follows.
a) With respect to reactions, i.e. external stability and determinacy.
b) With respect to members, i.e. internal stability and determinacy.
c) A combination of external and internal conditions, i.e. overall stability and determinacy.
1.4.1 BEAMS
A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. The
bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own weight and external
reactions to these loads is called a bending moment. Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can
also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e., loads due to an earthquake or wind).
• Stability depends on external supports
• Determinacy relates on the number of available and conditional equations.
• ra< r; structure is statically unstable
• ra = r; structure is statically determinate
• ra > r; structure is statically indeterminate where:
ra is the available number of reaction components
r is the minimum number of reaction components required for stability, usually 3+n
n is the number of special/ conditional equation
Remark: r = 3 is not a sufficient condition for stability
Example

ra = 3 and r =3 ➔ ra = r
Stable and Determinate

ra = 5 and r = 3 ➔ ra = r
Degree of External Indeterminacy = 2
Stable and Indeterminate to 2nd Degree

ra = 6 and r = 3 ➔ ra > r
Degree of External Indeterminacy = 6
Stable and Indeterminate to 3rd Degree

ra = 8 and r = 3 ➔ ra > r
Degree of External Indeterminacy = 6
Stable and Indeterminate to 5th Degree

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1.4.2 TRUSSES
A simple truss can be made by combining three bars to form a triangle. Stability depends partly on
external supports and partly on the arrangement of members or bars. Three reaction components are required
for external stability and determinacy of a plane truss without condition equations.
1.4.2.1 External classification
The external statical classification of the structure depends on the total number of reaction components,
ra and their arrangement. Therefore, the following criteria hold true:
• ra < r; structure is statically unstable externally
• ra = r; structure is statically determinate externally
• ra > r; structure is statically indeterminate externally

where
ra is the available number of reaction components
r is the minimum number of reaction components required for external stability,
usually 3+n
n is the number of special/ conditional equation
The condition for ra > = r is necessary but not sufficient conditions for statical classification because the
arrangement of the reaction components may render the truss unstable.
1.4.2.2 Internal classification
For internal classification, in addition to the above definition for r; let m be the total number of bars and j
the total number of joints. Then
2j = m + r
The above equation can be rewritten as: m = 2j - r
In this form, m is the number of members required to form an internally statically determinate truss that
connects j joints and has r reaction components required for external stability. If ma is the actual number of bar
forces in the truss, then the following criteria hold true for internal classification
• ma < m; truss is statically unstable internally
• ma= m; truss is statically determinate internally
• ma > m; truss is statically indeterminate internally
Consider the trusses shown below. The truss shown in fig (a) is stable whereas the truss shown in fig (b)
is unstable since the geometric arrangement of the members is not maintained.

Fig (a) Fig (b)

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1.4.3 FRAMES
Frames are composed of continuous members and rigidly connected joints, the degree of indeterminacy
(DI) is determined as the difference of the total number of unknown reaction components and the number of
static equilibrium equations available. Stability depends partly on external supports and partly on moment
resisting joints.
1.4.3.1 External classification
The external statical classification of the structure depends on the total number of reaction components,
ra and their arrangement. Therefore, the following criteria hold true:
 ra < r; structure is statically unstable externally
 ra = r; structure is statically determinate externally
 ra > r; structure is statically indeterminate externally
where ra is the available number of reaction components
r is the minimum number of reaction components required for external stability, usually 3+n
n is the number of special/ conditional equation
ra > = r is necessary but not sufficient conditions for statical classification because the arrangement of
the reaction components may render the frame unstable.
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1.4.3.2 Internal classification
Let ma =the actual number of members
r = the minimum number of independent reaction components required for external stability
j= the total number joints
n= number of special/condition equations
Therefore, the number of unknowns = 3 ma + r
the number of available equations = 3j+n
Then the following criteria hold true for internal classification of frames
If (3ma + r) < (3j + n)➔ then the structure is statically unstable
(3m+ r) = (3j + n) ➔ then the structure is statically determinate
(3ma + r) > (3j + n) ➔ then the structure is statically indeterminate

1.4.3.3 Overall classification

The criterion already established for both trusses and frames hold also for investigation of overall effect.
To determine the overall classification of a frame, in the above expressions replace r by ra
Note. The number of conditional equation introduced by a hinge joint is equal to the number of
members at the joint minus one. n = m - 1

m = 4 , n = 4 – 1 =3 m = 3 , n = 3 – 1 =2 m = 2 , n = 2 – 1 =1

n=3 n=1 n=2

For internal hinge ➔ n = 1 For internal roller ➔ n = 2

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10 FTVTI, CTF,BCTD
 CHAPTER 2
ACTIONS (LOADS) ON STRUCTURES
Actions refer to loads applied to the structure . Determination of loads that act on a structure, evaluation
of critical force effects in the member and dimensioning are the most difficult and yet important steps in the
overall process of design.
The loads that enter a system are of three different types. Concentrated loads (example a single
vehicular wheel load) are those that are applied over a relatively small area. Line loads are distributed
along a narrow strip of the structure. The weight of a line members and the weight of a wall or partition are
examples of this type of load. Surface loads are loads that are distributed over an area. The loads on a
warehouse floor and the wind load on a roof are examples of surface loads.
The loads that act on a structure can be grouped into four categories: permanent action (dead loads),
variable action (live loads), and seismic action ( earth quake loads) and accidental actions(accidental loads).
These categories can be further divided according to the specific nature of the loading. Because the method of
analysis is the same for each category of loading, all loads could be combined before the analysis is
performed. However, separate analyses for the individual loading cases are usually carried out to facilitate the
consideration of various load combinations.
Furthermore, loads can be classified based on:
• Direction: - The loads are broadly classified as vertical loads, and horizontal loads. The vertical
loads consist of dead load, live load and impact load. The horizontal loads comprise of wind load and
earthquake load. The loads may also be classified as longitudinal loads (acting in the direction of member long
dimension) and transverse load (horizontal but perpendicular to longitudinal direction) Example of
longitudinal forces are tractive and braking forces are considered in special case of design of bridges, gantry
girders etc.
• Variation with time: - dead load (permanent) and Live Loads (Transient)
• Structural Response: - Static (loads applied gradually) and dynamic (loads applied over a short
period of time and vary in magnitude with time and cause the structure to accelerate or vibrate)
Terms relating to actions according to ES EN
• Permanent Actions (G), are actions for which the variation in magnitude with time is negligible e.g.
self-weight of structures, fixed equipment and road surfacing, and indirect actions caused by shrinkage and
uneven settlements;
• Variable Actions (Q), are actions for which the variation in magnitude with time is not negligible. e.g.
imposed loads on building floors, beams and roofs, wind actions or snow loads;
• Accidental Actions (A), are actions of short duration but of significant magnitude that are unlikely to
occur on a given structure during the design working life. e.g. fire, explosions, or impact from vehicles.
• Seismic Action (AE), action that arises due to earthquake ground motions
The characteristic value of an action is defined by one of the following three alternatives:
■ Its mean value – generally used for permanent actions
■ An upper value with an intended probability of not being exceeded or
lower value with an intended probability of being achieved – normally used
for variable actions with known statistical distributions, such as wind or snow.
■ A nominal value – used for some variable and accidental actions.

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2.1 DEAD LOADS (PERMANENT ACTIONS)
Dead loads are those that act on the structure as a result of the weight of the structure itself and of the
components of the system that are permanent fixtures. As a result, dead loads are characterized as having fixed
magnitudes and positions. Examples of dead loads are the weights of the structural members themselves,
such as beams and columns, the weights of roof surfaces, floor slabs, ceilings, or permanent partitions,
fixed permanent equipment, weight of different materials and so on.
The self weight of a structure can be represented by a single characteristic value Gk, provided that the
variability of G is small , and it can be calculated on the basis of the nominal dimensions and the mean unit
mass. If the variability of G is not small and the statistical distribution is known, two values are used , an
upper value ( Gk,sup) and a lower value (Gk,inf)
Densities of construction and stored materials:- nominal densities can be treated as characteristic values
when determining self weights. ES EN 1991-1-1:2015, in its Annex A, gives comprehensive tables for densities
of construction and stored materials. For materials where the bulk weight density has significant variability
according to its source, a range of values is provided.

2.2 VARIABLE ACTIONS: IMPOSED LOADS

Imposed loads on buildings are divided into categories.
Table 6.1 - Categories of use ( imposed load)

A Areas for domestic and Rooms in residential buildings and houses;

residential activities bedrooms and wards in hospitals;
bedrooms in hotels and hostels
kitchens and toilets.
B Office areas
C Areas where people may Cl: Areas with tables, etc. e.g. areas in schools, cafes,
congregate (with the exception restaurants, dining halls, reading rooms, receptions.
of areas defined under category C2: Areas with fixed seats, e.g. areas in churches, theatres
A, B, and D) or cinemas, conference rooms, lecture halls, assembly halls,
waiting rooms, railway waiting rooms.
C3: Areas without obstacles for moving people, e.g. areas in
museums, exhibition rooms, etc. and access areas in public
and administration buildings, hotels, hospitals, railway
station forecourts.
C4: Areas with possible physical activities, e.g. dance halls,
gymnastic rooms, stages.
C5: Areas susceptible to large crowds, e.g. in buildings for
public events like concert halls, sports halls including
stands, terraces and access areas and railway platforms.

D Shopping areas D1: Areas in general retail shops

D2: Areas in department stores
E Area for storage and industrial E1: Areas susceptible to accumulation of goods ,including
use access area- Area for Storage (books and other documents)
E2 : Industrial use
Table 6.2 - Imposed Loads on floors, balconies and stairs in buildings

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 Categories of loaded
qk Qk
areas
Category A [kN/m2] [kN]
- Floors 1.50 2.00 2.00 3.00
- Stairs 2.00 4.00 2.00 4.00
- Balconies 2.50 4.00 2.00 3.00

Category B 2.00 3.00 1.50 4.50

Category C
- C1 2.00 3.00 3.00 4.00
- C2 3.00 4.00 2.50 7.00 4.00
- C3 3.00 5.00 4.00 7.00
- C4 4.50 5.00 3.50 7.00
- C5 5.00 7.50 3.50 4.50
Category B
- D1 4.00 5.00 3.50 7.00 4.00
- D2 4.00 5.00 3.50 7.00
Category E
-E1 7.5 7
Attention is drawin to 6.3.1.1(2) in particular for C4 and C5 , when dynamic effects need to be considered.
Note 1:- Depending on their anticipated uses, areas likely to be categorized as C2,C3,C4 may categorized as
C5 by decision of the client.
The recommended values , intended for separate application , are underlined. qk is intended for determination
of general effect and Qk for local effects.
Where necessary qk and Qk may be increased in the design (e.g. for stairs and balconies depending on the
occupancy and on dimensions)
The characteristic values of vertical loads in storage areas should be derived by taking into account the density
and the upper design values for stacking heights. When stored material exerts horizontal forces on walls etc.,
the horizontal force should be determined in accordance with ES EN 1991-4.
Loads in industrial areas should be assessed considering the intended use and the equipment which is to be
installed. Where equipment such as cranes, moving machinery etc, are to be installed the effects on the
structure should be detern1ined in accordance with ES EN 1991-3.
Action by Forklift
Class of Net Weight Hoisting Width of Overall Overall
Forklift [kN] Load [kN] axle a[m] width b [m] length [m]
FL 1 21 10 0.86 1 2.6
FL 2 31 15 0.95 1.1 3
FL 3 44 25 1 1.2 3.3
FL 4 60 40 1.2 1.4 4
FL 5 90 60 1.5 1.9 4.6
FL 6 110 80 1.8 2.3 5.1

Qk,dyn=φ Qk

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 Qk,dyn is the dynamic characterstics value of the action
φ =dynamic magnification fator (φ =1.4 for pneumatic tyres,φ = 2.00 for solid tyres)
A variable action has four representative values. In decreasing order of magnitude these are :-
1.Characteristics value ( Qk) 2. Combination value( ψo Qk) 3. Frequent value ( ψ1 Qk) 4. Quasi – permanent
Value( ψ2 Qk)
Combination value ( ψo Qk) takes
account of the reduced probability of
simultaneous occurrence of the most
unfavorable values of several independent
variable actions . It Is used for the
verification of ultimate limit states and
irreversible serviceability limit states.
Frequent value ( ψ1 Qk) is used for
verification of ultimate limit states
involving accidental design actions and
reversible limit states.
Quasi – permanent Value( ψ2 Qk) is
also used for ultimate limit state verification involving accidental actions and for reversible serviceability limit
states
ψ factors for buildings
Action ψ0 ψ1 ψ2
Imposed loads in buildings, category (see ES EN 1991-1-1)
Category A : domestic, residential areas 0.7 0.5 0
Category B : office areas 0.7 0.5 0
Category C : congregation areas 0.7 0.7 1
Category D : shopping areas 0.7 0.7 1
Category E : storage areas 1 0.9 1
Category F : traffic area, vehicle weight ≤ 30kN 0.7 0.7 1
Category G : traffic area,30kN<vehicle weight≤ 160kN 0.7 0.5 0
Category H : roofs 0 0 0
Wind loads on buildings (ES EN 1991-1-4) 0.6 0.2 0
Temperature (non-fire) in buildings(EN 1991-1-5) 0.6 0.5 0
Variable action(Imposed load) Reduction factors
A reduction factor αA may be applied to the qk values for imposed loads given in ES EN 1 for floors,
and accessible roofs for maintenance purposes. αA is a function of ψ and the floor area A.
A reduction factor for imposed loads for area, A, may be applied on beam loading and should be
𝐴 5𝜓
determined using: 𝛼𝐴 = Min⁡( 𝐴0 + 7 𝑜 , 1)
Where o is the combination factor according to ES EN1 , may be taken as 0.7 for residential , social
and commercial areas , 1.0 for storage and Industrial areas.
Ao = 10 m2 , A = influence area (tributary area ) for beam loading
Specific rules for the reduction of imposed load on columns in residential areas, offices, areas with
congregation of people and shopping centers.The total imposed load from storeys may be multiplied by a
2+(𝑛−2)𝜓𝑜
reduction factor n 𝛼𝑛 = where n is the number of storeys (>2) above the loaded
𝑛
structural element under consideration from the same category.

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2.4 COMBINATION OF ACTION
Actions are combined so that they probably produce the most unfavorable effect on the structure for the limit
state being considered. Action that cannot occur simultaneously, for example due to physical reason should not
be considered together in combination.
Design situations
ES EN 1-1-3.2(1)P The relevant design situations shall be selected taking into account the circumstances under
which the structure is required to fulfil its function.
EN 1990 3.2(2)P Design situations shall be classified as follows:
– persistent design situations, which refer to the conditions of normal use;
– transient design situations, which refer to temporary conditions applicable to the structure, e.g. during
execution or repair;
– accidental design situations, which refer to exceptional conditions applicable to the structure or to its
exposure, e.g. to fire, explosion, impact or the consequences of localised failure;
– seismic design situations, which refer to conditions applicable to the structure when subjected to seismic
events.
Combination of Action depend on limit state for which the structure is to be designed
Limit States
ES EN uses the concept of limit state design. Limit states are states beyond which the structure no longer
satisfies the design performance requirements. ES EN makes a distinction between Ultimate limit states and
serviceability limit states .

Ultimate limit states are those associated with collapse or with other forms of structural failure. They concern
the safety of the structure and its contents and the safety of people.
Serviceability limit states correspond to the conditions beyond which specified service requirements for a
structure or structural element are no longer met. They concern functioning of the construction works or parts
of them, the comfort of people and the appearance.
ES EN recommends that the serviceability requirement should be determined in contracts and/or in design. It
distinguishes between
reversible serviceability limit states and
irreversible serviceability limit states,
The verification of serviceability limit states is based on criteria considering the
deformations that affect the appearance,
the comfort of users or the functioning of the structure (including the function of machines or
services). or
that cause damage to finishes or non- structural members.
VERIFYING ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES
For Ultimate limit state verification ES EN 1 stipulates that the effects of design action should not exceed the
design resistance of the structure at ultimate limit states.
The following four limit states need to be verified
1. Equilibrium :Loss of Static equilibrium of the structure or any part of it considered as rigid body
where minor variation in the value or spatial distribution of action from a single source are
significant and the strength of construction material or ground are generally governing.
Ed,dist ≤ Ed,stb
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 Ed,dist= is the design value the effect of destabilizing actions
Ed,stb= is the design value of the effect of stabilizing actions
2. Structure Failure : Internal failure and excessive deformation of structures or structural
members including footings, piles, basement walls, etc… where the strength of the structure
governs
When considering limit state of or excessive deformation of a section, member or connection
𝐸𝑑⁡ ≤ 𝑅𝑑⁡
𝐸𝑑⁡ =⁡is the design value of the effect of actions such as internal forces
𝑅𝑑⁡ =⁡is the design value of the corresponding resistance

3. Geo failure :Failure or Excessive deformation of the ground where the strength of soil or rock
are significant for in providing resistance
When considering limit state of or excessive deformation of a section, member or connection
𝐸𝑑⁡ ≤ 𝑅𝑑⁡
𝐸𝑑⁡ =⁡is the design value of the effect of actions such as internal forces
𝑅𝑑⁡ =⁡is the design value of the corresponding resistance

4. Fatigue Failure: Fatigue failure of structure and structural member

For Serviceability limit state verification ES EN 1 stipulates that the design values of the effects of actions
specified in the serviceability criterion must be less than the limiting design value of the relevant
serviceability criterion
𝐸𝑑, ≤ 𝐶𝑑⁡
𝐸𝑑, =⁡is the design value effect of actions specified in the serviceability criterion
𝐶𝑑 =⁡is the the limiting design value of the relevant serviceability criterion
Design value of an action = partial safety factor (ES EN 1) * representative value of an action (
characterstics value or  * characterstic value)

Load combination for Ultimate limit state

For Ultimate limit state three types of combination of actions must be investigated.
1. Fundamental (Persistent or transient) situation for ultimate limit state verification other than
those related to fatigue can be symbolically represented as follows

∑ 𝛾𝐺𝑗 𝐺𝑘𝑗 ⁡" + "𝛾𝑝 𝑃" + "𝛾𝑞,1 𝑄𝑘,1 " + " ∑ 𝛾𝑞,𝑖 𝜓0,𝑖 𝑄𝑘,𝑖
𝑗≥1 𝑖>1
𝐺𝑘,𝑗 = all permanent action including self weight
𝑄𝑘,1 = Dominant Variable action
𝜓0,𝑖 𝑄𝑘,𝑖 = Combination value of other variable action
𝑃= pre-stressing action
𝛾 = partial safety factor
2. Accidental situation for ultimate limit state verification can be symbolically represented as follows

∑ 𝐺𝑘𝑗 ⁡ + 𝑃 + 𝐴𝑑 + (𝜓1,1 ⁡𝑜𝑟⁡𝜓2,1𝑖 )⁡ 𝑄𝑘,1 + ∑ 𝜓2,𝑖 𝑄𝑘,𝑖

𝑗≥1 𝑖>1
𝐺𝑘,𝑗 = all permanent action including self weight
𝑄𝑘,1 = Dominant Variable action
𝐴𝑑 =Accidental action
(𝜓1,1 ⁡𝑜𝑟⁡𝜓2,1𝑖 ) 𝑄𝑘,1 = frequent or quasi permanent value of variable action

16 FTVTI, CTF,BCTD
 𝜓2,𝑖 𝑄𝑘,𝑖 = quasi permanent value of all other variable actions
𝑃= pre-stressing action
𝛾 = partial safety factor
This combination considers that
- Accidents are unintended event, such as explosion, fire or vehicular impact, which are of short
duration and have a low probability of occurrence
- A degree of damage is generally acceptable in the event of an accident
- Accidents generally occur when the structure is in use

3. Seismic situation for ultimate limit state verification can be symbolically represented as follows

∑ 𝐺𝑘𝑗 ⁡ + 𝑃 + 𝐴𝐸𝑑 + ∑ 𝜓2,𝑖 𝑄𝑘,𝑖

𝑗≥1 𝑖>1
COMBINATION OF ACTIONS FOR SLS
Set of design values used for the verification of the structural reliability for a limit state under the
simultaneous influence of different actions.
For Serviceability limit state ES EN stipulates that three combination to be investigated.
1. Characteristic (Rare) Combinations which is mainly used in those cases when exceeding a limit
state causes a permanent local damage or permanent unacceptable deformation, is represented by

∑ 𝐺𝑘𝑗 ⁡ + 𝑃 + 𝑄𝑘,1 + ∑ 𝜓0,𝑖 𝑄𝑘,𝑖

𝑗≥1 𝑖>1
𝐺𝑘,𝑗 = all permanent action including self weight
𝑄𝑘,1 = Dominant Variable action
𝜓0,𝑖 𝑄𝑘,𝑖 = Combination value of other variable action
𝑃⁡= pre-stressing action
2. Frequent combinations , which is used mainly in those cases when exceeding a limit state causes
local damage, large deformation or temporary vibration is represented by

∑ 𝐺𝑘𝑗 ⁡ + 𝑃 + 𝜓1,1 𝑄𝑘,1 + ∑ 𝜓2,𝑖 𝑄𝑘,𝑖

𝑗≥1 𝑖>1
3. Quasi Permanent Design combination: is used mainly when long term effects are of importance
and is symbolically represented as follows

∑ 𝐺𝑘𝑗 ⁡ + 𝑃 + ∑ 𝜓2,𝑖 𝑄𝑘,𝑖

𝑗≥1 𝑖>1

17 FTVTI, CTF,BCTD
 WIND ACTION ON STRUCTURES
The wind can exert significant pressure and induce structural vibrations. ES 1 (ES EN 1991-1-4:2015)
serves as a comprehensive standard for wind actions on structures.This code provides guidelines and
procedures for accurately assessing wind loads and their impact on various types of structures.
The wind velocity and the velocity pressure are composed of a mean and a fluctuating component. The
mean wind velocity vm should be determined from the basic wind velocity vb which depends on the wind
climate, and the height variation of the wind determined from the terrain roughness and orography

BASIC VALUES
The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity, vb,0, is the characteristic 10 minutes mean wind
velocity, irrespective of wind direction and time of year, at 10 m above ground level in open country
terrain with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles with separations of at least 20 obstacle
heights. The basic wind velocity shall be calculated from Expression (4.1).
vb = cdir cseason v b,0 (4.1)
vb is the basic wind velocity, defined as a function of wind direction and time of year at 10 m above
ground of terrain category II
vb,0 is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity as defined above,
cdir is the directional factor. cseason is the season factor. The recommended value is cdir = cseason =1.
VARIATION OF MEAN WIND WITH HEIGHT
The mean wind velocity vm(z) at a height z above the terrain depends on the terrain roughness and
orography and on the basic wind velocity, vb, and should be determined using Expression (4.3)
𝑣𝑚 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑟 (𝑧)𝑐𝑜 (𝑧)𝑣𝑏 (4.3)
𝑐𝑟 (𝑧)is the roughness factor, ⁡𝑐𝑜 (𝑧) is the orography factors.If it is accounted for in the basic wind
velocity, the recommended value is 1.0.
Terrain roughness
cr(z), accounts for the variability of the mean wind velocity at the site of the structure due to: the height
above ground level, the ground roughness of the terrain upwind of the structure in the wind direction
considered
𝑧
𝑘𝑟 Ln[𝑧 ] 𝑧min ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧max
𝑜
𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) = { 𝑧 (4.4)
𝑘𝑟 Ln[ min ] 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧min
𝑜𝑧
z0 is the roughness length
𝑧
kr terrain factor depending on the roughness length z0 calculated using 𝑘𝑟 = 0.19(𝑧 𝑜 )0.07 (4.5
𝑜,II
z0,II = 0,05 m (terrain category II, zmin is the minimum height defined in Table 4.1
zmax is to be taken as 200 m,

Zo Zmin
Terrain category
m m
0 Sea or coastal area exposed to the open sea 0.003 1
Lakes or flat and horizontal area with negligible vegetation and
I 0.01 1
without obstacles
Area with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles (trees,
II 0.05 2
buildings) with separations of at least 20 obstacle heights
Area with regular cover of vegetation or buildings or with isolated
III obstacles with separations of maximum 20 obstacle heights (such as 0.3 5
villages, suburban terrain, permanent forest)
Area in which at least 15 % of the surface is covered with buildings and
IV 1 10
their average height exceeds 15 m
18 FTVTI, CTF,BCTD
TERRAIN OROGRAPHY
Where orography (e.g. hills ,cliffs etc.) increases wind velocities by more than 5% the effects should be
taken in to account using orography factor co .Please refer Annex A3 of the code.
The effects of orography may be neglected when the average slope of the upwind terrain is less than 30.
The upwind terrain may be considered up to a distance of 10 times the height of the isolated orographic
features.
If the structure is to be located close to another structures, that is at least twice as high as the average
height of its neighbouring structures , then it could be exposed ( dependent on the properties of the
structure ) to increased wind velocities for certain wind directions. Such cases should be taken in to
account.(approximation is given in annex A.4. of the code)

The effects of closely spaced buildings and other obstacles may be taken in to account . A recommened
first approximation is given in Annex A.5 of the code
WIND TURBULENCE
The turbulence intensity Iv(z) at height z is defined as the standard deviation of the turbulence divided by
the mean wind velocity. The standard deviation of the turbulence may be determined from
v =kr vb kI (4.6)
The recommended rules for the determination of Iv(z) are given in expression 4.7
𝜎𝑣 𝐾𝐼
= 𝑧 𝑧min ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧max
𝑣𝑚 (𝑧) 𝑐𝑜 (𝑧)Ln( )
𝑧𝑜
𝐼𝑣 (𝑧) = { 𝐾𝐼 (4.7)
𝐼𝑣 (𝑧min ) = 𝑧min 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧min
𝑐𝑜 (𝑧)Ln( )
𝑧𝑜
kI is the turbulence factor. The value of kI may be given in the National Annex. The recommended value
is kI = 1,0.
PEAK VELOCITY PRESSURE
The peak velocity pressure qp(z) at height z , which includes mean and short term velocity fluctuations,
should be determined .The recommended rule is given in expression (4.8)
1
𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) = [1 + 7𝐼𝑣 (𝑧)] ∗ 𝜌𝑉𝑚 2 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑒 (𝑧)𝑞𝑏 (4.8)
2
ρ is the air density, which depends on the altitude, temperature and barometric pressure to be expected in
the region during wind storms, The recommended value is 1,25 kg/m3.
𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) 1
ce(z) is the exposure factor given in Expression (4.9) ⁡𝑐𝑒 (𝑧) =
𝑞𝑏
(4.9) 𝑞𝑏 = 2 𝜌𝑣𝑏 2 (4.10)

Wind action on structure

The wind pressure acting on the external surfaces, we , should be obtained from Expression (5.1).
19 FTVTI, CTF,BCTD
𝑤𝑒 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 )𝑐pe (5.1)
qp(ze) is the peak velocity pressure
𝑧𝑒 reference height for the external pressure given in section 7
𝑐pe is the pressure coefficient for external pressure (section 7 of the code)

The wind pressure acting on the internal surfaces, wi , should be obtained from Expression (5.2).
𝑤𝑖 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑖 )𝑐pi (5.1)
qp(zi) is the peak velocity pressure
𝑧𝑖 reference height for the internal pressure given in section 7
𝑐pi is the pressure coefficient for internal pressure (section 7 of the code)
The net pressure on a wall, roof or element is the difference between the pressures on the opposite
surfaces taking due account of their signs. Pressure, directed towards the surface is taken as positive, and
suction, directed away from the surface as negative. Examples are given in Figure below.

Figure :- Pressure on surfaces

Wind forces for the whole structure or a structural component should be determined:– by calculating
forces using force coefficients or by calculating forces from surface pressures
The wind force Force acting on a structure or a structural component may be determined directly by using
the following expression 𝐹𝑊 = 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝐶𝑓 ∗ 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 ) ∗ 𝐴ref eq(5.3) or
or by vectorial summation over the individual structural elements by using Expression (5.4)
𝐹𝑊 = 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 ∗ ∑ 𝐶𝑓 ∗ 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 ) ∗ 𝐴ref eq(5.4)
elements
where:
𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 is the structural factor as defined in Section 6
𝐶𝑓 is the force coefficient for the structure or structural element, given in Section 7 or Section 8
𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 )is the peak velocity pressure (defined in 4.5) at reference height ze (defined in Section 7 or Section
8)
𝐴ref ⁡⁡is the reference area of the structure or structural element, given in Section 7 or Section 8
NOTE Section 7 gives cf values for structures or structural elements such as prisms, cylinders, roofs,
signboards, plates and lattice structures etc. These values include friction effects. Section 8 gives cf
values for bridges.
The wind force, Fw acting on a structure or a structural element may be determined by vectorial
summation of the forces Fw,e, Fw,i and Ffr calculated from the external and internal pressures using
Expressions (5.5) and (5.6) and the frictional forces resulting from the friction of the wind parallel to the
external surfaces, calculated using Expression (5.7).
external forces:

20 FTVTI, CTF,BCTD
 𝐹𝑊,𝑒 = 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 ∗ ∑ 𝑊𝑒 ∗ 𝐴ref
surface
Internal Forces
𝐹𝑊,𝑖 = 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 ∗ ∑ 𝑊𝑖 ∗ 𝐴ref
surfaces
Friction Forces
𝐹fr = 𝐶fr ∗ 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 ) ∗ 𝐴fr
𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑑 ⁡is the structural factor as defined in Section 6
𝑊𝑒 is the external pressure on the individual surface at height z
𝑊𝑖 ⁡is the internal pressure on the individual surface at height z
𝐴ref ⁡is the reference area of the individual surface
𝐶fr ⁡is the friction coefficient derived from 7.5
𝐴fr ⁡is the area of external surface parallel to the wind,
NOTE 1 For elements (e.g. walls, roofs), the wind force becomes equal to the difference between the
external and internal resulting forces.
NOTE 2 Friction forces Ffr act in the direction of the wind components parallel to external surfaces.
The effects of wind friction on the surface can be disregarded when the total area of all surfaces
parallel with (or at a small angle to) the wind is equal to or less than 4 times the total area of all external
surfaces perpendicular to the wind (windward and leeward).
In the summation of the wind forces acting on building structures, the lack of correlation of wind
pressures between the windward and leeward sides may be taken into account.
It is recommended to consider the lack of correlation only for walls.
6.2 Determination of cscd
(1) cscd should be determined as follows:
a) For buildings with a height less than 15 m the value of cscd may be taken as 1.
b) For facade and roof elements having a natural frequency greater than 5 Hz, the value of cscd may be
taken as 1.
c) For framed buildings which have structural walls and which are less than 100 m high and whose height
is less than 4 times the in-wind depth, the value of cscd may be taken as 1.
d) For chimneys with circular cross-sections whose height is less than 60 m and 6,5 times the diameter,
the value of cscd may be taken as 1.
e) Alternatively, for cases a), b), c) and d) above, values of cscd may be derived from 6.3.1.
f) For civil engineering works (other than bridges, which are considered in Section 8), and chimneys and
buildings outside the limitations given in c) and d) above, cscd should be derived either from 6.3 or taken
from Annex D.
NOTE 1 Natural frequencies of facade and roof elements may be calculated using Annex F (glazing spans
smaller than 3 m usually lead to natural frequencies greater than 5 Hz)
NOTE 2 The figures in Annex D give values of cscd for various types of structures. The figures give
envelopes of safe values calculated from models complying with the requirements in 6.3.1.
Pressure coefficients for buildings
External Pressure coefficient: The external pressure coefficients Cpe for building depend on the size of
the loaded area A, which is the area of the structure that produces the wind action in the section to be
calculated. The external pressure coefficients are given for loaded areas Aof 1 m2 and 10 m2 in the tables
for appropriate building configuration as Cpe,1 for local coefficient and Cpe,10 for overall coefficient
respectively.
𝐶pe,1 𝐴 ≤ 1𝑚2
𝐶pe = { 𝐶pe,10 𝐴 ≥ 10𝑚2
𝐶pe,1 − (𝐶pe,10 − 𝐶pe,10 )Log[𝐴] 1𝑚2 < 𝐴 < 10𝑚2
Values of external pressure coeffients Cpe for different cases are given in table 7.1 to 7.5 of ES EN 1991
1-4 :2015

21 FTVTI, CTF,BCTD
 Internal pressure Coefficient :-Internal and external pressures shall be considered to act at the same time.
The worst combination of external and internal pressures shall be considered for every combination of
possible openings and other leakage paths.
The internal pressure coefficient depends on the size and distribution of the openings in the building
envelope. When in at least two sides of the buildings (facades or roof) the total area of openings in each
side is more than 30 % of the area of that side, the actions on the structure should not be calculated from
the rules given in this section but the rules of 7.3(canopy) and 7.4(free standing) should instead be used.
A face of a building should be regarded as dominant when the area of openings at that face is at least
twice the area of openings and leakages in the remaining faces of the building considered.
For a building with a dominant face the internal pressure should be taken as a fraction of the external
pressure at the openings of the dominant face
When the area of the openings at the dominant face is twice the area of the openings in the
remaining faces ,➔ Cpi=0.75 Cpe
When the area of the openings at the dominant face is at least 3 times the area of the openings in
the remaining faces, ➔ Cpi=0.9 Cpe
For buildings without a dominant face, the internal pressure coefficient cpi should be determined
from Figure 7.13 of the code, and is a function of the ratio of the height and the depth of the building, h/d,
and the opening ratio µ for each wind direction θ, which should be determined from Expression (7.4).
𝛴area⁡of⁡openinigs⁡where⁡𝑐pe ⁡is⁡negative⁡o⁡r0
𝜇=
𝛴area⁡of⁡all⁡openings

Internal pressure coefficients for uniformly distributed openings

NOTE 1 This applies to façades and roof of buildings with and without internal partitions.
NOTE 2 Where it is not possible, or not considered justified, to estimate µ for a particular case then cpi
should be taken as the more onerous of +0,2 and -0,3.
The reference height zi for the internal pressures should be equal to the reference height z for the external
pressures on the faces which contribute by their openings to the creation of the internal pressure. If there
are several openings the largest value of ze should be used to determine zi.
SEISMIC ACTION ON STRUCTURES
A common dynamic loading that structures must resist is that associated with earthquake motions. Here,
the base of the structure is subjected to a sudden shakim ng movement. Since the upper portion of the
building tries to remain at its state of motion (initially at rest) , it will be subjected to inertia force which
22 FTVTI, CTF,BCTD
shall be proportional and distributed according to the mass distribution of the building elements. The
inertial force is variable according to the ground acceleration(vibration) . The method of determining
seismic action (earthquake load) is presented in ES EN 1998-1:2015: - Design of Structures for
Earthquake resistance.
Method of analysis:
Depending on the structural characteristics of the building on of the following methods of analysis may
be used.
1. “Equivalent lateral force method of analysis” is a linear elastic and static analysis for building
which meet the condition given in 4.3.3.2 of ES EN 1998-1:2015
2. “Modal response spectrum analysis” is a linear elastic and dynamic analysis for all types of
building. The non-linear effects have been introduced in terms of behaviour factor
3. Non Linear method: - Nonlinear static (push over) analysis, Non-linear time history(dynamic )
analysis
Using equivalent lateral force method of analysis, the seismic base shear force Fb, for each
horizontal direction in which the building is analysed, shall be determined using the following
expression:
Fb = m 
Where
Fb : is the total lateral load on structure ( seismic base shear)
Sd(T1) : is the ordinate of the design spectrum at period T1
T1 : is the fundamental period of vibration of the building for lateral motion in the
direction considered
m : is the total mass of the building above the foundation or above the top of a rigid
basement
 : is the correction factor, the value of which is equal to  =0.85 if T1 <2 Tc and the
building has more than two storeys, or  =1 otherwise
For buildings with heights of up to 40 m the value of T1 ( in sec) may be approximated by:
𝑇1 = 𝐶1 𝐻 3⁄4
Where H :is the height of the building , in m, from the foundation or from the top of a rigid
basement
0.085 for⁡moment⁡resistant⁡space⁡steel⁡frames
𝐶1 = { 0.075 for⁡moment⁡resistant⁡space⁡concrete⁡frames⁡and⁡for⁡eccentrically⁡braced⁡steel⁡frames
0.05 for⁡other⁡structures
For the horizontal component of the seismic action, the design spectrum 𝑆𝑑 (𝑇) is defined by the
following expression
2 𝑇 2.5 2
𝑎𝑔 𝑆( + ( − )) 0 ≤ 𝑇 < 𝑇𝐵
3 𝑇𝐵 𝑞 3
2.5
𝑎𝑔 𝑆 𝑇𝐵 ≤ 𝑇 < 𝑇𝐶
𝑞
𝑆𝑑 (𝑇) =
2.5 𝑇𝐶
max⁡(𝑎𝑔 𝑆 ( ), 𝛽𝑎𝑔 ) 𝑇𝐶 ≤ 𝑇 < 𝑇𝐷
𝑞 𝑇
2.5 𝑇𝐶 𝑇𝐷
max⁡(𝑎𝑔 𝑆 ( ), 𝛽𝑎𝑔 ) 𝑇 ≥ 𝑇𝐷
{ 𝑞 𝑇 }
Where
T : is the period of vibration of a linear single degree of freedom system;
Ag : is the design ground acceleration on type A ground( ag=L agR)
gI :importance factor
agR : is reference peak ground acceleration on type A ground
TB : is the lower limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration branch;
TC is the upper limit of the period of constant spectral acceleration branch;
TD : is the value defining the beginning of constant displacement range of the spectrum
S : is the soil factor
q : is the behaviour factor
23 FTVTI, CTF,BCTD
  : is the lower bound factor for the horizontal design spectrum ( the recommended value is
0.2 )
The values of the periods TB,TC and TD and the soil factor S describing the shape of the elastic response
spectrum depend up on the ground type. Ground types (A,B,C,D and E) are described by the stratigraphic
profiles and parameters given in table 3.1 of ES EN 1998-1 :2015

24 FTVTI, CTF,BCTD
 Chapter 3
Deflection of structures
Structures, like all other physical bodies, deform and change shape when subjected to forces. Deflections
of structures can occur from various sources, such as loads, temperature, fabrication errors, or settlement.
In design, deflections must be limited in order to provide integrity and stability of roofs, and prevent
cracking of attached brittle materials such as concrete, plaster or glass.
Furthermore, a structure must not vibrate or deflect severely in order to “appear” safe for its occupants.
More important, though, deflections at specified points in a structure must be determined if one is to
analyze statically indeterminate structures.
The deflections to be considered throughout this lecture note apply only to structures having linear elastic
material response. Under this condition, a structure subjected to a load will return to its original
undeformed position after the load is removed. The deflection of a structure is caused by its internal
loadings such as normal force, shear force, or bending moment. For beams and frames, however, the
greatest deflections are most often caused by internal bending, whereas internal axial forces cause the
deflections of a truss.
Before the slope or displacement of a point on a beam or frame is determined, it is often helpful to sketch
the deflected shape of the structure when it is loaded in order to partially check the results. This deflection
diagram represents the elastic curve or locus of points which defines the displaced position of the
centroid of the cross section along the members. For most problems the elastic curve can be sketched
without much difficulty. When doing so, however, it is necessary to know the restrictions as to slope or
displacement that often occur at a support or a connection. With reference to fig 1, supports that resist a
force, such as a pin, restrict displacement; and those that resist moment, such as a fixed wall, restrict
rotation. Note also that deflection of frame members that are fixed connected (4) causes the joint to rotate
the connected members by the same amount . On the other hand, if a pin connection is used at the joint,
the members will each have a different slope or rotation at the pin, since the pin cannot support a
moment.

fixed-connected joint

pin-connected joint
If the elastic curve seems difficult to establish, it is suggested that the moment diagram for the beam or
frame be drawn first. By our sign convention for moments, a positive moment tends to bend a beam or
horizontal member concave upward, Likewise, a negative moment tends to bend the beam or member
25 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
concave downward, Therefore, if the shape of the moment diagram is known, it will be easy to construct
the elastic curve and vice versa.

For example, consider the beam in Fig. 3 with its associated moment diagram. Due to the pin-and-roller
support, the displacement at A and D must be zero. Within the region of negative moment, the elastic
curve is concave downward; and within the region of positive moment, the elastic curve is concave
upward. In particular, there must be an inflection point at the point where the curve changes from concave
down to concave up, since this is a point of zero moment. Using these same principles, note how the
elastic curve for the beam in Fig. 3–4 was drawn based on its moment diagram. In particular, realize that
the positive moment reaction from the wall keeps the initial slope of the beam horizontal.

The methods that have been developed for computing deflections can be broadly classified into two
categories, (1) geometric methods and (2) work-energy methods. As these names imply, geometric
methods are based on a consideration of the geometry of the deflected shapes of structures, whereas the
work-energy methods are based on the basic principles of work and energy.
In this section we will develop two important differential equations that relate the internal moment in a
beam to the displacement and slope of its elastic curve. These equations form the basis for the deflection
methods presented in this chapter, and for this reason the assumptions and limitations used in their
development should be fully understood. To derive these relationships, we will limit the analysis to the
most common case of an initially straight beam that is elastically deformed by loads applied
perpendicular to the beam’s x axis and lying in the plane of symmetry for the beam’s cross-sectional area,
Fig. 3–7a. Due to the loading, the deformation of the beam is caused by both the internal shear force and
bending moment. If the beam has a length that is much greater than its depth, the greatest deformation
will be caused by bending, and therefore we will direct our attention to its effects.

26 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
When the internal moment M deforms the element of the beam, each cross section remains plane and the
angle between them becomes,Fig below.. The arc dx that
represents a portion of the elastic curve
intersects the neutral axis for each cross
section.
The radius of curvature for this arc is
defined as the distance , which i s
measured from the center of curvature to dx. Any arc on the element other than dx is
subjected to a normal strain. For example, the strain in arc ds, located at a position y
from the neutral axis, is ℰ = (ds′ − ds)⁄dsHowever, ds = dx = 𝜌dθ and ds′ =
(𝜌 − 𝑦)dθ, and so
(ds′−ds) ((𝜌−𝑦)dθ−𝜌dθ) −𝑦 1 −ℰ
ℰ= = = ➔ =
ds 𝜌dθ 𝜌 𝜌 𝑦

If the material is homogeneous and behaves in a linear elastic manner, then Hooke’s law applies, Also,
since the flexure formula applies, Combining these equations and substituting into the above equation, we
have
−𝑀𝑦
−𝑀𝑦 𝜎 𝐼 −𝑀𝑦 1 −ℰ −𝑀𝑦 1 𝑀 1 𝑀
𝜎= ℰ=𝐸= = = =− = 𝐸𝐼 =
𝐼 𝐸 𝐸𝐼 𝜌 𝑦 𝐸𝐼 𝑦 𝜌 𝐸𝐼
Here 𝜌: − the radius of curvature at a specific point on the elastic curve
( 1⁄𝜌 =is referred to as the curvature)
M=the internal moment in the beam at the point where 𝜌 is to be determined
E=the material’s modulus of elasticity
I=the beam’s moment of inertia computed about the neutral axis
The product EI in this equation is referred to as the flexural rigidity and it is always a positive quantity.
Arc length dx = 𝜌dθ rearranging
1 𝑀 dθ 𝑀
𝑀
dθ = 𝜌 dx = 𝐸𝐼 dx ⇒ dx = 𝐸𝐼 dθ = dx
𝐸𝐼
we can express the curvature 𝜌 in terms of x and , 𝜈 ( 𝑜𝑟 𝑦) − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 we can then determine the equation of
1 𝑀
elastic curve for the beam. In most calculus books it is shown that this curvature relationship is = 𝐸𝐼 =
𝜌

𝑑2 𝜈 ⁄dx2 𝑀 𝑑2 𝜈
for small deflection slope dν⁄dx ≃ 0 =
[1+(dν⁄dx)2 ]3⁄2 𝐸𝐼 dx 2
ds = √dx 2 + dν2 = √(1 + (dν⁄dx)2 )dx 2 = dx√(1 + (dν⁄dx)2 ) = dx for samll deflection
This result implies that points on the elastic curve will only be displaced vertically and not horizontally.

27 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
 The Double Integration Method
𝑀 𝑑2 𝜈
Once M is expressed as a function of position x, then successive integrations of Eq. 𝐸𝐼 = will yield
dx2

𝑑2 𝜈 𝑀
𝑀
the beam’s slope, tan𝜃 ≅ 𝜃 = dν⁄dx = ∫ 𝜃=∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 𝐸𝐼
dx

𝑑2 𝜈 𝑀 𝑀
and the equation of the elastic curve, 𝜈 = ∫∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫∫ 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜈 = ∫∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
dx2 𝐸𝐼
For each integration it is necessary to introduce a “constant of integration” and then solve for the
constants to obtain a unique solution for a particular problem. If the loading on a beam is discontinuous—
that is, it consists of a series of several distributed and concentrated loads—then
several functions must be written for the internal moment, each valid within the region between the
discontinuities. For example, consider the beam shown in Fig The
internal moment in regions AB, BC, and CD must be written in
terms of the x1, x2 and x3 coordinates. The constants of
integration determined, the functions will give the slope and
deflection (elastic curve) for each region of the beam for
which they are valid.
Sign Convention.
Positive deflection, 𝜈, is upward, and as a result, the
positive slope angle will be measured counterclockwise
from the x axis. The reason for this is shown in Fig,
Positive increases dx and d 𝜈 in x and 𝜈 direction create
an increase in d 𝜃 that is counterclockwise. Also, since
the slope angle will be very small, its value in radians
can be determined directly from 𝜃 ≅ tan𝜃 = dν⁄dx
Boundary and Continuity Conditions.
The constants of integration are determined by evaluating the functions for slope or displacement at a
particular point on the beam where the value of the function is known. These values are called boundary
conditions. For example, if the beam is supported by a roller or pin, then it is required that the
displacement be zero at these points. Also, at a fixed support the slope and displacement are both zero.
If a single x coordinate cannot be used to express the equation for the beam’s slope or the elastic curve,
then continuity conditions must be used to evaluate some of the integration constants. Consider the beam
in Fig. Here the coordinates x1 and x2 are valid only
within the regions AB and BC, respectively. Once the
functions for the slope and deflection are obtained, they
must give the same values for the slope and deflection at
point B, so that the elastic curve is physically

28 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
continuous. Expressed Continuity condition mathematically, 𝜃1 (x1 = 𝑎) = 𝜃2 (x2 = 𝑎),
𝜈1 (x1 = 𝑎) = 𝜈2 (x2 = 𝑎) These equations can be used to determine two constants of integration.
Steps
➢ Draw an exaggerated view of the beam’s elastic curve.
➢ Establish h the x and v coordinate axes. If several discontinuous loads are present, establish x
coordinates that are valid for each region of the beam between the discontinuities.
➢ Determine inte rnal moment M as a function of x. for all regions
𝑀 𝑀
Use 𝜃 = ∫ d𝑥 and 𝜈 = ∫ ∫ d𝑥 d𝑥 to find slope and deflection equation. (determine constants of
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

integration using the boundary conditions for the supports and the continuity conditions that apply to
slope and displacement at points where two functions meet.
The Double Integration Method
These theorems provide a semi graphical technique for determining the slope of the elastic curve and its
deflection due to bending. They are particularly advantageous when used to solve problems involving
beams, especially those subjected to a series of concentrated loadings or having segments with different
moments of inertia.
To develop the theorems, reference is made to the beam in Fig. below
If we draw the moment diagram for the beam and then divide it by the flexural rigidity, EI, the “M/EI
diagram” shown in Fig below results.

𝑥=𝐵
𝑥=𝐵 𝑀
𝜃𝐵⁄𝐴 = 𝜃𝐵 − 𝜃𝐴 = ∫𝑥=𝐴 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ dx, the area under M/EI diagram between A and B
𝐸𝐼
𝑥=𝐴

Moment Area Theorem 1: The change in slope between any

two points on the elastic curve equals the area of the M/EI
diagram between these two points. (Angle is measured in
counter clockwise direction if area under M/EI is positive)
The second moment-area theorem is based on the relative deviation of tangents to the elastic curve. Fig
below is a greatly exaggerated view of the vertical deviation dt of the tangents on each side of the
differential element dx.

29 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
 This deviation is measured along a vertical line passing
through point A. Since the slope of the elastic curve and its
deflection are assumed to be very small, it is satisfactory to
approximate the length of each tangent line by x and the arc
ds’ by dt. Using the circu lar-arc formula
ds′ = 𝑟dθ For smal ldeflection 𝑟 ≅ 𝑥, ds′ ≅ dt
𝑀
dt = 𝑥dθ = 𝑥 𝐸𝐼 dx Integrating both side from A to B
𝑥=𝐵 _ 𝑥=𝐵 _
𝑥=𝐵 𝑀 𝑀
𝑡𝐴⁄𝐵 = ∫𝑥=𝐴 𝑑𝑡 =∫ 𝑥 𝐸𝐼 dx = 𝑥 ∫ dx 𝑥 is the distance from the vertical axis through A to the
𝐸𝐼
𝑥=𝐴 𝑥=𝐴

centroid of the area between A and B.

Moment area Theorem 2: The vertical deviation of the tangent at a point (A) on the elastic curve with
respect to the tangent extended from another point (B) equals the “moment” of the area under the M/EI
diagram between the two points (A and B). This moment is computed about point A (the point on the
elastic curve), where the deviation is𝑡𝐴⁄𝐵 to be determined.
𝑡𝐴⁄𝐵 ≠ 𝑡𝐵⁄𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Positive area moment shows “ The tangent at point A is above the tangent at point
Negative value shows the vice versa.
Steps:-
➢ Determine support reaction and draw the beam’s M/EI diagram (if Loads are concentrated forces
,M/EI will consists of straight line segments. If the loads are distributed loads and a series of
concentrated loads it will be ease to use the method of superposition by drawing M/EI diagram for
each load separately)
➢ Draw an exaggerated view of the beam’s elastic curve. The slope and displacement to be
determined should be indicated on the curve.( the tangents at the points if unknown slope and
displacement and at the support should be considered
➢ Apply moment area theorem 1 to determine angle between two tangents and Therom2 to
determine the vertical deviations between these tangents.

30 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
 Conjugate-Beam Method
This method relies only on the principles of statics, and hence its application will be more familiar. The
basis for the method comes from the similarity of element equilibrium equation and deflection equation
+↑ ∑𝐹𝑦 = 0 ➔ 𝑉 + 𝑤(𝑥)dx − (𝑉 + dV) = 0 ➔ dV = 𝑤(𝑥)dx ➔
𝐝𝐕
➔Slope of shear force diagram = 𝒘(𝒙)
𝐝𝐱

➔Change in shear between two points Δv = ∫ 𝑑𝑣 =

∫ 𝑤(𝑥)dx
+ccwΣM0 = 0 −𝑉dx − 𝑀 − 𝑤(𝑥)dx𝜖(dx) + 𝑀 + dM = 0
dM = 𝑉dx + 𝑤(𝑥)dx𝜖(dx) Neglecting higher order differentials
dM
 Slope of bending moment diagram =𝑉
dx
dM
dV 𝑑 𝑑2 𝑀
 = 𝑤(𝑥) ⇒ dx
= 𝑤(𝑥) ⇒ = 𝑤(𝑥)
dx dx dx2

 Change in moments between two points ΔM = ∫ 𝑑𝑀 = ∫ 𝑣(𝑥)dx

Similarity b/n equilibrium and deflection equation
dV dθ 𝑀 𝑑2 𝑀 𝑑2𝜈 𝑀
= 𝑤(𝑥) ⟺ = dx2
= 𝑤(𝑥) ⟺
dx2
=
dx dx 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼

The shear V compares with the slope the moment M compares with the displacement, and the external
load w compares with the M/EI diagram. To make use of this comparison we will now consider a beam
having the same length as the real beam, but referred to here as the “conjugate beam,” Fig. below the
conjugate beam is “loaded” with the M/EI diagram derived from the load w on the real beam. From the
above comparisons, we can state two theorems related to the conjugate beam, namely,

Theorem 1: The slope at a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the shear at the
corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
Theorem 2: The displacement of a point in the real beam is numerically equal to the moment at the
corresponding point in the conjugate beam.
Conjugate-Beam Supports. When drawing the conjugate beam it is important that the shear and
moment developed at the supports of the conjugate beam account for the corresponding slope and
displacement of the real beam at its supports, a consequence of Theorems 1 and 2.

31 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
Steps
➢ Draw the conjugate beam for the real beam. This beam has the same length as the real beam and
has corresponding support.
➢ The conjugate beam is loaded with the real beam’s M/EI diagram. This loading is assumed to be
distributed over the conjugate beam and is directed upward when M/EI is positive and downward
when M/EI is negative.
➢ Using the equations of equilibrium, determine the reactions at the conjugate beam’s supports.
➢ Determine the shear and moment using the equations of equilibrium. V’and M’ equal  and  ,
respectively, for the real beam. In particular, if these values are positive, the slope is
counterclockwise and the displacement is upward.
Deflections Using Energy Methods
For more complicated loadings or for structures such as trusses and frames, it is suggested that energy
methods be used for the computations. Most energy methods are based on the conservation of energy
principle, which states that the work done by all the external forces acting on a structure, Ue is
transformed into int ernal work or strain energy Ui, which is developed when the structure deforms. If
the material’s elastic limit is not exceeded, the elastic strain energy will return the structure to its

32 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
 undeformed state when the loads are removed. The conservation of energy principle can be stated
mathematically as 𝑈𝑒 = 𝑈𝑖
External Work. By Force
When a force F undergoes a displacement dx in the same direction as the force, the work done is
𝑥
dU𝑒 = 𝐹dx . If the total displacement is x, the work becomes 𝑈𝑒 = ∫dU𝑒 = ∫0 𝐹 𝑑𝑥
Consider now the effect caused by an axial force
applied to the end of a bar as shown in Fig. below As
the magnitude of F is gradually increased from zero to
some limiting value the final elongation of the bar
becomes

If the material has a linear elastic response, then

Let x be displacement at the bottom end of member
where end force is applied➔ at F=0➔x=0 and at F=P➔x=, Gradually applied force at at any end
𝑃
elongation x can be obtained using linear relation ship, 𝛥 𝑥 and x and F are gradually increasing. (work
done is being calculated at the end of the member )
𝛥
𝑥=𝛥 𝑃 𝑃𝑥 2 𝑥=𝛥 1
𝑈𝑒 = ∫𝑥=0 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ] = 2 𝑃𝛥 (shaded are under load displacement diagram)
𝛥 2𝛥 𝑥=0
0

Suppose now that P is already applied to the bar and that another force is now applied, so the bar deflects
further by an amount Fig. right. The work done by P (not F’) when the bar undergoes the further
deflection is then
𝛥+𝛥′ 𝛥+𝛥′
𝑥=𝛥+𝛥′
U′e = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑥 = Px]𝑥=𝛥
𝛥 𝛥

= PΔ′
Here the work represents the shaded rectangular
area in Fig. right. In this case P does not change its
magnitude since 𝛥′ is caused only by F’. Therefore,
work is simply the force magnitude (P) times the
displacement𝛥′ . In summary, then, when a force P
is applied to the bar, followed by application of the force the total work done by both
forces is represented by the triangular area ACE in Fig right. The triangular area ABG represents the
work of P that is caused by its displacement 𝛥 ,the triangular area BCD represents the work of F’ since
this force causes a displacement 𝛥′ and lastly, the shaded rectangular area BDEG represents the
additional work done by P when displaced 𝛥′ as caused by F’

33 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
External Work. By Moment
The work of a moment is defined by the product of the magnitude of the moment M
and the angle d through which it rotates, i.e. dU𝑒 = 𝑚 dθ If the total angle of
rotation is  radians, the work becomes
let x be the rotation gradually applied from zero to θ, let m be moment gradually
applied from zero to M
𝜃
𝑈𝑒 = ∫ dU𝑒 = ∫ 𝑚 dθ
0 m

𝑥=𝜃 𝜃
𝑀 𝑀𝑥 2 𝑥=𝜃 1
𝑈𝑒 = ∫ 𝑚 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ] = 𝑀𝜃
𝑥=0 0 𝜃 2𝜃 𝑥=0 2
However, if the moment is already applied to the structure and other loadings further distort the structure
by an amount 𝜃′ then M rotates 𝜃′ and the work is 𝑈′𝑒 = 𝑀𝜃′
Internal work done - Strain Energy due Axial Force.
When an axial force N is applied gradually to the bar in Fig. left, it will
strain the material such that the external work done by N will be converted
into strain ene rgy, which is stored in the bar. Provided the material is
linearly elastic, Hooke’s law is valid, and if the bar has a constant cross
sectional area A and length L, the normal stress is 𝜎 = 𝐸ℰand the
dΔ 𝑁 dΔ 𝑁dy
final strain is ℰ = Consequently 𝐴 = 𝐸 dy and the deflection is dΔ =
dy AE

For gradually applied load N , the internal work done

𝑦=𝐿
1 1 𝑁dy 1 𝑁 2 dy 1 𝑁2 1 𝑁 2 𝑦 𝑦=𝐿 1 𝑁2𝐿
dU𝑖 = 2 𝑁dΔ = 2 𝑁 =2 ➔𝑈𝑖 = ∫ 𝑑𝑈𝑖 = ∫ 𝑑𝑦 = 2 ] =2
AE AE 2 AE AE 𝑦=0 AE
𝑦=0

Internal work done -Strain energy due to Bending

Strain Energy—Bending. Consider the beam shown in Fig. right,
which is distorted by the gradually applied loading P and w. These
loads create an internal moment M in the beam at a section
located a distance x from the left support. The resulting rotation of
𝑀dx
the differential element dx, dθ = . Consequently, the strain
EI

energy, or work stored in the element for internal moment that is gradually
1 1 𝑀dx 1 𝑀2 dx
developed is dU𝑖 = 2 𝑀dθ = 2 𝑀 =2
EI EI

The strain energy for the beam is determined by integrating this result
over the beam’s entire length L. The result is
𝑥=𝐿 𝑥=𝐿
1 𝑀2 𝑀2
𝑈𝑖 = ∫ 𝑑𝑈𝑖 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 EI 2EI
𝑥=0 𝑥=0

34 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
Principle of Work and Energy
In this method, conservation of energy or the principle of work and energy can be applied to determine
the displacement at a point on a structure.
To do this, consider finding the displacement at the point where the
force P is applied to the cantilever beam in Fig. Left The external
1
work is 𝑈𝑒 = 2 PΔTo obtain the resulting strain energy, we must

first determine the internal moment as a function of position x in the beam. In

this case M =-Px,
𝑥=𝐿 𝑥=𝐿
𝑀2 (−𝑃𝑥)2 𝑃 2 𝑥 3 𝑥=𝐿 𝑃 2 𝐿3
so that 𝑈𝑖 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 2EI ] =
2EI 2EI 3 𝑥=0 6EI
𝑥=0 𝑥=0

Equating the external work to internal strain energy and solving for the unknown displacement 𝛥we have
1 𝑃 2 𝐿3 𝑃𝐿3
𝑈𝑒 = 𝑈𝑖 PΔ = 𝛥=
2 6EI 3EI

Although the solution here is quite direct, application of this method is limited to only a few select
problems. It will be noted that only one load may be applied to the structure, since if more than one load
were applied, there would be an unknown displacement under each load, and yet it is possible to write
only one “work” equation for the beam. Furthermore, only the displacement under the force can be
obtained, since the external work depends upon both the force and its corresponding displacement. One
way to circumvent these limitations is to use the method of virtual work or Castigliano’s theorem, both of
which are explained in the following sections.
Principle of virtual work
It is sometimes referred to as the unit-load method. It provides a general means of obtaining the
displacement and slope at a specific point on a structure, be it a beam, frame, or truss.
Before developing the principle of virtual work, it is necessary to make some general statements
regarding the principle of work and energy, which was discussed in the previous section. If we take a
deformable structure of any shape or size and apply a series of external loads P to it, it will cause
internal loads u at points throughout the structure. It is necessary that the external and internal loads be
related by the equations of equilibrium. As a consequence of
these loadings, external displacements will occur at the P loads
and internal displacements will occur at each point of internal
load u. In general, these displacements do not have to be elastic,
and they may not be related to the loads; however, the external
and internal displacements must be r elated by the
compatibility of the displacements. In other words, if the
external displacements are known, the corresponding internal
displacements are uniquely defined. In general, then, the
principle of work and energy states:

35 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
Work of External Loads = Work of Internal loads
ΣPΔ = Σu𝛿
Principle of virtual work
consider the structure (or body) to be of arbitrary shape(arbitrary shape represent a specific truss, beam, or
frame) as shown in Fig below Suppose it is necessary to determine the displacement  of point A on the
body caused by the “real loads” and It is to be understood that these loads cause no movement of the
supports; in general, however, they can strain the material beyond the elastic limit. Since no external load
acts on the body at A and in the direction of the displacement  can be determined by first placing on the
body a “virtual” load such that this force acts in the same direction fig b . For convenience, which will be
apparent later, we will choose P’ to have a “unit(have value of one unit)” magnitude, that is, The term
“virtual” is used to describe the load, since it is imaginary and does not actually exist as part of the real
loading. The unit load P’ does, however, create an internal virtual load u in a representative element or
fiber of the body Step 2 Apply real loads on top of step 1 and determine
Step 1:- Apply Virtual external unit Load at internal element (dL)-Due to Real Loads to determine
A(P’=1) and determine internal element force Displacement at some required point A( )
due to unit load (u)

dL= internal
displacement any
arbitrary internal
element due to real
loads
= displacement at A due to real loads

applied in the direction of required

displacement
In step 2 , External work done due to virtual unit load due to real displacement  = 1*
Total Internal work done due to internal force due to virtual unit load displacing through
real internal displacements dL u, =  u * dL
Virtual work equation – for finding translational displacement in the direction of virtual unit load

Real Displacements
1 ∗ 𝛥 = 𝛴𝑢 ∗ dL
Virtual Loading
Displacements

Virtual work equation – for finding rotational displacement in the direction of virtual unit couple
Real Displacements

1 ∗ 𝜃 = 𝛴𝑢𝜃 ∗ dL
Virtual Loading
Displacements

36 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
Method of Virtual Work: Trusses
The method of virtual work can be used to determine the displacement of a truss joint when the truss is
subjected to an external loading, temperature change, or fabrication errors.
For the purpose of explanation let us consider the following truss with the vertical displacement of
joint B of the truss which is subjected to external loads P1
and P2 ,and change in temperature Ti of member i and a T9, L9

fabrication error of Li in member i ,

T2, L2
T1, L1 T5, L5

T4, L4
T6, L6 T7, L7 T8, L8
Step 1 apply virtual unit load in the directi on of required
n9
displacement and determine internal forces in each member ni
n1 n3 n5
n2 n4

n6 n7 n8

Step 2. Determine the internal force due to external loading , Ni

𝑁𝑖 𝐿𝑖 N9
Deflection i due to Ni in member i, i =
𝐴𝑖 𝐸𝑖
N1 N3 N5
N2 N4
➔Internal virtual work done due to real displacements due to loads
N6 N7 N8
𝑁𝑖 𝐿𝑖
ni * i = ni *
𝐴𝑖 𝐸𝑖

➔Internal virtual work done due to real displacements due to temperature change  ni * Ti =  *𝛼𝑖 ΔT𝑖 𝐿𝑖
➔Internal virtual work done due to real displacements due to fabrication error  ni * Li

𝑛𝑖 𝑁𝑖 𝐿𝑖
Total Internal virtual work done = ∑ + ∑𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖 𝛼𝑖 ΔT𝑖 𝐿𝑖 + ∑𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖 ΔL𝑖
𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖 𝐸𝑖
Total external virtual work done = 1.
External virtual work done = Internal virtual work done

𝑛𝑖 𝑁𝑖 𝐿𝑖
1. = = ∑ + ∑𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖 𝛼𝑖 ΔT𝑖 𝐿𝑖 + ∑𝑖=1 𝑛𝑖 ΔL𝑖
𝑖=1 𝐴𝑖 𝐸𝑖

37 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
Method of Virtual Work: Beams and Frames
In this part, Deflections due to shear, axial and torsional loadings, and temperature are not considered.

The displacement  of point A is to be determined. Virtual loads and internal moment m due
To compute  a virtual unit load acting in the to virtual loads
direction of  is placed on the beam at A, and the
internal virtual moment m is determined by the method
of sections at an arbitrary location x from the left support,
When the real loads act on the beam, point A is displaced
 Provided these loads cause linear elastic material
response, then, the element dx deforms or rotates dθ =
(𝑀 ⁄EI)dx Here M is the internal moment at x caused by Real loads and internal moment M due to real
loads
the real loads.
The external virtual work done by the unit load = 1.
The internal virtual work done by the moment m = 𝑚 𝑑𝜃

Summing the effects on all the elements dx along
the beam requires an integration, and therefore Total
𝐿
𝐿 𝑀
internal work done =∫0 𝑚 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑚(EI) 𝑑𝑥
0

External virtual work done = Internal virtual work done

𝐿
𝑀
1* = ∫ 𝑚(EI) d𝑥
0

To find rotation at a point in stead of applying virtual unit

load , virtual unit couple is applied at point where rotation is
required and internal bending moment due to this virtual
couple m is calculated.
𝐿
𝐿
internal work done = ∫0 𝑚𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑚𝜃 (EI) 𝑑𝑥
𝑀 
0

External virtual work done = Internal virtual work done

𝐿
𝑀
1. 𝜃 = ∫ 𝑚𝜃 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
0 EI
Integration Using Tables. When the structure is subjected to a relatively simple loading, and yet the
solution for a displacement requires several integra tions, a tabular method may be used to perform these
integrations. To do so the moment diagrams for each member are drawn first for both the real and virtual
loadings. By matching these diagrams for m and M with those given in the table below, the integral can be
determined from the appropriate formula.

38 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
Virtual work method: - Deflection due to shear: - In order to determine
the virtual strain energy in a beam due to shear, we will consider the beam
element dx shown in Fig. The shearing distortion dy of the element as
caused by the real loads is dy =  dx.
If the shearing strain  is caused by linear elastic material response, then
Hooke’s law applies 𝛾 = 𝜏⁄𝐺, Therefore, dy = 𝜏⁄𝐺 dx .We can express
the shear stress as 𝜏 = 𝐾(𝑉 ⁄𝐴) where K is a form factor that depends
upon the shape of the beam’s cross-sectional area A. Hence, we can
write dy = 𝐾(𝑉⁄𝐺 𝐴)dx The internal virtual work done by a virtual shear force 𝜈, acting on the element
while it is deformed dy,
is therefore dUs = 𝜈dy = 𝜈𝐾(𝑉 ⁄𝐺 𝐴)dx For the entire beam, the virtual strain energy is determined by
integration.
𝐿 𝐿
𝜈𝑉
1. 𝛥 = Us = ∫ 𝑑Us = ∫ 𝐾( ) 𝑑𝑥
0 0 𝐺𝐴
Where
𝛥 = vertical deflection due to shear
𝜈= internal shear in the member, expressed as a function of x and caused by the external virtual unit load

39 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
V = internal shear in the member, expressed as a function of x and caused by the real loads
A = cross-sectional area of the member.
K =form factor for the cross-sectional area
K = 1.2 for rectangular cross sections
K = 10/9 for circular cross sections
K ≈ 1 for wide-flange and I-beams, A = the area of the web
G = shear modulus of elasticity for the material
Virtual work method: - twist due to torsion in circular members
If the member has a circular cross-sectional area, no warping of its cross section will occur when it is
loaded. As a result, the virtual strain energy in the member can easily be derived.
To do so consider an element dx of the member that is subjected to an
𝑐dθ
applied torque T, This torque causes a shear strain of 𝛾 = Provided
dx
𝜏 𝑇𝑐
linear elastic material response occurs, then 𝛾 = 𝐺 where 𝜏 = 𝐽
𝛾dx 𝜏 dx 𝑇𝑐 dx 𝑇
Thus, the angle of twist dθ = =𝐺 = = 𝐺𝐽 dx
𝑐 𝑐 𝐽 𝐺𝑐

If a virtual unit load is applied to the structure that causes an internal

virtual torque t in the member, then after applying the real loads, the virtual strain energy in the member of
𝑇
length dx will be dU𝑡 = 𝑡dθ = 𝑡 𝐺𝐽 dx
𝐿
𝐿 𝑇
Integrating over the length L of the member yields 1 ∗ 𝜃 = ∫0 dU𝑡 = ∫ 𝑡 𝐺𝐽 dx
0

Where t = internal virtual torque caused by the external virtual unit load.
T = internal torque in the member caused by the real loads.
G = shear modulus of elasticity for the material.
J = polar moment of inertia for the cross section, 𝐽 = 𝜋 𝑐 4 ⁄2where c is the radius of the cross-
sectional area L = member’s length.
The virtual strain energy due to torsion for members having noncircular cross-sectional areas is determined
using a more rigorous analysis than that presented here.
V irtual work method: - rotation and translation due to gradient temperature
A structural member can be subjected to a temperature
difference across its depth, as in the case of the beam shown
in Fig.
If this occurs, it is possible to determine the displacement of
points along the elastic curve of the beam by using the principle
of virtual work. To do so we must first compute the amount of
rotation of a differential element dx of the beam as caused by
the thermal gradient that acts over the beam’s cross section. For

40 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
the sake of discussion we will choose the most common case of a beam
having a neutral axis located at the mid-depth (c) of the beam. If we
plot the temperature profile, Fig., it will be noted that the mean
temperature is 𝑇𝑚 = (𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )⁄2 If the temperature difference at the
top of the element causes strain elongation, while that at the bottom
causes strain contraction. In both cases the difference in temperature
is ΔT𝑚 = 𝑇1 − ΔT𝑚 = 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇2 .= (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )⁄2
Since the thermal change of length at the top and bottom is δx = 𝛼ΔT𝑚 dxFig. (right), then the rotation of
δx 𝛼ΔT𝑚 dx
the element is dθ = =
𝑐 𝑐

If we apply a virtual unit load at a point on the beam where a displacement is to be determined, or apply a
virtual unit couple moment at a point where a rotational displacement of the tangent is to be determined,
then this loading creates a virtual moment 𝒎𝜽 in the beam at the point where the element dx is located.
When the temperature gradient is imposed, the virtual strain energy in the beam is then
𝐿 𝐿
𝐿 𝛼ΔT𝑚 dx 𝛼(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )dx
1 ∗= 𝑈temp = ∫0 𝑚𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑚𝜃 = ∫ 𝑚𝜃
𝑐 2𝑐
0 0
𝐿 𝐿
(𝑇1 + 𝑇2 )
1 ∗ 𝛥 = 𝑈temp = ∫ 𝑛𝛼Tm 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑛𝛼 𝑑𝑥
0 0 2
Where
𝛥= elongation at virtual unit load
𝜃 = rotation at virtual unit couple
𝑛 = internal virtual axial force in the beam expressed as a function of x and caused by the external virtual
unit load
𝑚𝜃 = internal virtual moment in the beam expressed as a function of x and caused by the external virtual
unit couple moment
𝛼 = coefficient of thermal expansion.
ΔT𝑚 temperature difference between the mean temperature and the temperature at the top or bottom of the
beam.
𝑐 = mid-depth of the beam.
In general, though, beam and frame members may be subjected to several of the other loadings discussed
in this section. However, the additional deflections caused by shear and axial force alter the deflection of
beams by only a few percent and are therefore generally ignored for even “small” two- or three-member
frame analysis of one-story height. If these and the other effects of torsion and temperature are to be
considered for the analysis, then one simply adds their virtual strain energy to the equation of virtual work
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑀 𝛼(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )dx (𝑇1 +𝑇2 )
1∗𝜃 bending = ∫ 𝑚𝜃 (EI) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑚𝜃 1 ∗ 𝛥longitudinal = ∫ 𝑛𝛼 𝑑𝑥
2𝑐 2
0 0 0
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
𝑀 𝜈𝑉 𝑇
1 ∗ 𝛥transverse = ∫ 𝑚(EI) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝐾(𝐺𝐴) 𝑑𝑥 1 ∗ 𝜃twisting = ∫ 𝑡 𝐺𝐽 dx (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠)
0 0 0
41 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
Castigliano’s second theorem, or the method of least work,:- is method for determining the
deflection or slope at a point in a structure, be it a truss, beam, or frame but it applies only to structures that
have constant temperature, unyielding supports, and linear elastic material response. If the displacement
of a point is to be determined, the theorem states that it is equal to the first partial derivative of the strain
energy in the structure with respect to a force acting at the point and in the direction of displacement. In a
similar manner, the slope at a point in a structure is equal to the first partial derivative of the strain energy
in the structure with respect to a couple moment acting at the point and in the direction of rotation.
To derive Castigliano’s second theorem, consider a body (structure) of any arbitrary shape which is
subjected to a series of n forces 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 . . . . 𝑃𝑛 . Since the external work done by these loads is equal to the
internal strain energy stored in the body, we can write
𝑈𝑖 = 𝑈𝑒
The external work is a function of the external loads (𝑈𝑒 = 𝛴∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑥)Thus, 𝑈𝑖 = 𝑈𝑒 = 𝑓(𝑃1 , 𝑃2 . . . . 𝑃𝑛 )
Now, if any one of the forces, say 𝑃𝑖 is increased by a differential amount dP𝑖 the internal work is also
𝜕𝑈
increased such that the new strain energy becomes 𝑈𝑖 + dU𝑖 = 𝑈𝑖 + 𝜕𝑃𝑖 dP𝑖
𝑖

This value, however, should not depend on the sequence in which the n forces are applied to the body. For
example, if we apply to the body first, dP𝑖 then this will cause the body to be displaced a differential amount
1
dΔ𝑖 in the direction of dP𝑖 . The increment of strain energy would be 2 dP𝑖 ∗ dΔ𝑖 . This quantity, however,

is a second-order differential and may be neglected. Further application of the loads 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 . . . . 𝑃𝑛 which
displace the body𝛥1 , 𝛥2 . . . . 𝛥𝑛 yields the strain energy. 𝑈𝑖 + dU𝑖 = 𝑈𝑖 + dP𝑖 ∗ 𝛥𝑖
Here, 𝑈𝑖 as before, is the internal strain energy in the body, caused by the loads 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 . . . . 𝑃𝑛 and dU𝑖 =
dP𝑖 𝛥𝑖 is the additional strain energy caused by dP𝑖
𝜕𝑈
In summary, then, Eqn. 𝑈𝑖 + 𝜕𝑃 𝑖 dP𝑖 represents the strain energy in the body determined by first applying
𝑖

the loads 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 . . . . 𝑃𝑛 then dP𝑖 and Eqn. 𝑈𝑖 + dP𝑖 𝛥𝑖 represents the strain energy determined by first applying
dP𝑖 an d then 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 . . . . 𝑃𝑛 , Since these two equations must be equal,
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝑈𝑖 + 𝜕𝑃𝑖 dP𝑖 = 𝑈𝑖 + dP𝑖 𝛥𝑖 ➔ 𝜕𝑃 𝑖 dP𝑖 = dP𝑖 𝛥𝑖 ➔ 𝜕𝑃𝑖 = 𝛥𝑖 which proves the theorem; i.e., the displacement
𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

𝛥𝑖 in the direction of 𝑃𝑖 is equal to the first partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to 𝑃𝑖 (
Castigliano’s second theorem). Castigliano’s first theorem is similar to his second theorem; however, it
relates the load to the partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to the corresponding displacement,
𝜕𝑈
that is 𝜕𝛥 𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖 , The proof is similar.
𝑖

𝜕𝑈
It should be noted that Eq 𝜕𝑃𝑖 = 𝛥 𝑖 is a statement regarding the structure’s compatibility. Also, the above
𝑖

derivation requires that only conservative forces be considered for the analysis. These forces do work that
is independent of the path and therefore create no energy loss. Since forces causing a linear elastic response
are conservative, the theorem is restricted to linear elastic behavior of the material. This is unlike the

42 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
method of virtual force discussed in the previous section, which applied to both elastic and inelastic
behavior. to both elastic and inelastic behavior.
Castigliano’s Theorem for Trusses
𝑛𝑚
𝑛𝑚 𝑛𝑚 𝜕𝑁𝑗 𝑛𝑚
𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕 1 𝑁𝑗 𝐿𝑗 𝜕 𝑁𝑗 𝐿𝑗 2 2𝑁𝑗 𝐿𝑗 𝜕𝑁𝑗 𝐿𝑗
𝜕𝑃𝑖
𝛥𝑖 = = (∑ 𝑁𝑗 ∗ )= (∑ )=∑ = ∑ 𝑁𝑗
𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝜕𝑃𝑖 2 𝐴𝑗 𝐸𝑗 𝜕𝑃𝑖 2𝐴𝑗 𝐸𝑗 2𝐴𝑗 𝐸𝑗 𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝐴𝑗 𝐸𝑗
𝑗=1 𝑗=1 𝑗=1
𝑗=1

𝛥𝑖 = external joint displacement of the truss.in the direction of Pi

𝑃𝑖 = external force applied to the truss joint in the direction of 𝛥𝑖
𝑁𝑗 = in ternal force in a member j caused by both the force P and the loads on the truss
𝐿𝑗 = length of a member.j
𝐴𝑗 = cross-sectional area of a member.j
𝐸𝑗 = modulus of elasticity of a member. J
nm = total number of members in the truss.
This equation is similar to that used for the method of virtual work,Eqn due to external forces only i.e
𝑛𝑚
𝑛𝑗 𝑁𝑗 𝐿𝑗 𝜕𝑁
1. 𝛥𝑖 = ∑ except nj is replaced by 𝜕𝑃𝑗 Notice that in order to determine this partial derivative
𝐴𝑗 𝐸𝑗 𝑖
𝑗=1

it will be necessary to treat P as a variable (not a specific numerical quantity), and furthermore, each
member force Nj must be expressed as a function of P. As a result, computing generally requires slightly
more calculation than that required to compute each nj force directly. These terms will of course be the
𝜕𝑁𝑗
same, since 𝑛𝑗 = or is simply the change of the internal member force with respect to the load Pi, or the
𝜕𝑃𝑖

change in member force per unit load.

Steps:-
➢ Place a force Pi on the truss at the joint where the desired displacement is to be determined. This
force is assumed to have a variable magnitude in order to obtain the change Be sure Pi is directed
along the line of action of the displacement.
➢ Determine the force Nj in each member caused by both the real (numerical) loads and the variable
force P. Assume tensile forces are positive and compressive forces are negative.
𝜕𝑁𝑗
➢ Compute the respective partial derivative for each member.
𝜕𝑃𝑖
𝜕𝑁
➢ After Nj and 𝜕𝑃𝑗 have been determined, assign P equal to zero. To find Nj
𝑖

➢ Apply Castigliano’s theorem to determine the desired displacement 𝛥𝑖 • If the result is positive, 𝛥𝑖
is in the same direction as Pi. If a negative value results, is opposite to Pi

43 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
Castigliano’s Theorem for Beams and Frames
Deflection due to bending in direction of Pi
𝐿
𝜕𝑀 𝐿
𝜕 𝐿1 𝜕 𝐿1 𝑀 𝜕 1 𝑀2 2𝑀 𝐿
𝜕𝑀 𝑀
𝜕𝑃𝑖
𝛥𝑖 = ∫ 𝑀 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑀( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑃𝑖 0 2 𝜕𝑃𝑖 0 2 EI 𝜕𝑃𝑖 2 EI 2EI 0 𝜕𝑃𝑖 EI
0
0

Rotation due to bending in direction of M’i

𝐿
𝜕𝑀 𝐿
𝜕𝑈𝑖 𝜕 1 𝐿
𝜕 1 𝑀 𝐿
𝜕 1 𝑀 2𝑀 2 𝐿
𝜕𝑀 𝑀
𝜕𝑀′𝑖
𝜃𝑖 = = ∫ 𝑀 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑀( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑀′𝑖 𝜕𝑀′𝑖 0 2 𝜕𝑀′𝑖 0 2 EI 𝜕𝑀′𝑖 2 EI 2EI 0 𝜕𝑀′𝑖 EI
0
0

Where 𝛥𝑖 = external displacement of the point i caused by the real loads acting on the beam or frame
𝜃𝑖 = external rotation of the point i caused by the real loads acting on the beam or frame
Pi = external force applied to the beam or frame in the direction of 𝛥𝑖
M’i = external couple moment applied at pt i to the beam or frame in the direction of 𝜃𝑖
M = internal moment in the beam or frame, expressed as a function of x and caused by both
the force Pi and the real loads on the beam
E = modulus of elasticity of beam material.
I = moment of inertia of cross-sectional area computed about the neutral axis.
Deflection due shear and Bending
𝐿 𝐿
𝜕𝑀 𝑀 𝜕𝑉 𝑉
𝛥transverse = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝐾 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑃𝑖 EI 𝜕𝑃𝑖 𝐺𝐴
0 0

Angle of twist due torsion in circular members

𝐿
𝜕𝑇 𝑇
𝜃twisting = ∫ dx
0 𝜕𝑇′𝑖 𝐺𝐽

44 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
 Chapter 4
Analysis of Statically Indeterminate Structures by the Force Method ( Method of Consistent
deformation ) and Three moment equation for analysis of Statically Indeterminate Beam
In this section we will discuss the merits of using indeterminate structures and two fundamental ways in
which they may be analyzed. This indeterminacy may arise as a result of added supports or members, or
by the general form of the structure.
Advantages of Statically indeterminate structures:-
➢ For a given loading the maximum stress and deflection of an indeterminate structure are generally
smaller than those of its statically determinate counterpart.
➢ It tends to redistribute its load to its redundant supports in cases where faulty design or overloading
occurs. In these cases, the structure maintains its stability and collapse is prevented. This is
particularly important when sudden lateral loads, such as wind or earthquake, are imposed on the
structure.
Disadvantages of statically indeterminate structures: -
The cost savings in material may be more than the added cost necessary to fabricate the structure, since
oftentimes it becomes costlier to construct the supports and joints of an indeterminate structure compared
to one that is determinate.
Differential displacement of the supports will introduce internal stress in the structure. In statically
indeterminate structures stress would be developed in the structure due to differential settlement,
temperature change and fabrication error
Methods of Analysis.
When analyzing any indeterminate structure, it is necessary to satisfy equilibrium, compatibility, and
force-displacement requirements for the structure.
Equilibrium is satisfied when the reactive forces hold the structure at rest, and
compatibility is satisfied when the various segments of the structure fit together without intentional breaks
or overlaps.
Force-displacement requirements depend upon the way the material responds; in this module we assumed
linear elastic response.
In general, there are two different methods of analyzing a statically indeterminate structure:
1. Force or flexibility method,
2. Displacement or stiffness method.
1. Force Method :- Since compatibility forms the basis for this method, it has sometimes been referred
to as the compatibility method or the method of consistent displacements. This method consists of writing
equations that satisfy the compatibility and force-displacement requirements for the structure in order to
determine the redundant forces.
Once these forces have been determined, the remaining reactive forces on the structure are determined by
satisfying the equilibrium requirements.
45 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
Displacement Method. The displacement method of analysis is based on first writing force-displacement
relations for the members and then satisfying the equilibrium requirements for the structure. In this case,
the unknowns in the equations are displacements. Once the displacements are obtained, the forces are
determined from the compatibility and force displacement equations. This shall be treated in “Theory of
structures II”
Unknowns Equations Used for Solution Coefficients of the Unknowns
Force Method Forces Compatibility & Force Displacement Flexibility Coefficients
Displacement
Displacements Equilibrium & Force Displacement Stiffness Coefficients
Method
Force Method of Analysis:
General Procedure
The following procedure provides a general method for determining the reactions or internal loadings
of statically indeterminate structures using the force or flexibility method of analysis.
➢ The 1st step is to determine the degree of indeterminacy “n” of the structure
➢ Then structure I s divided in to “Primary structure” and “Redundant Structure(s)and Principle of
Superposition shall be used .
To do so, choose the “n” unknown redundant forces or moments that must be removed from the
structure in order to make it statically determinate and stable. Primary structure is stable and statically
determinate and of the same size and loading as the original structure with redundant reaction and/or
member forces removed. Redundant structure(s) is(are) structures of the same size, support condition
as primary structure with one removed redundant reaction force or redundant member force acting on
it . The number of redundant structures equals the degree of statically indeterminacy n.
➢ Using the principle of superposition, We write additional compatibility equations At removed
redundant reaction or at removed redundant member in the direction of redundant reaction or
member force
Deflection of Original structure (usually equals zero)= Deflection of the Primary structure + Deflection
of redundant structure(s)
Member gap/overlap of original structure(usually equals zero) = Member gap/overlap of the primary
structures+ Member gap/overlap of redundant structure(s).
Also, sketch the elastic curve on each structure and indicate symbolically the displacement or rotation
at the point of each redundant force or moment.
Compatibility Equations are written in terms of unknow redundant and member forces and their
corresponding flexibility coefficients obtained from unit loads or unit couple moments that are collinear
with the redundant forces or redundant member forces. Flexibility coefficient are displacement due to
application of unit load ( a load with a magnitude of one.).The may determined from the following table
or using any of deflection calculation method

46 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
Beam Deflections and Slopes

47 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
 ➢ Substitute these load-displacement relations into the compatibility equations and solve for the
unknown redundant reactions and redundant member forces. In particular, if a numerical value for
a redundant is negative, it indicates he redundant acts opposite to its corresponding unit force or
unit couple moment. Since the redundant forces and/or moments have been calculated, the
remaining unknown reactions can be determined from the equations of equilibrium.
Force Method of Analysis: Beams: Example
Free body diagram:
1. Degree of indeterminacy
MA
ra = 4 r=3 DI =n =ra-r = 4 – 3 = 1
Ax
2. Divide the structure in to primary and redundant
structures Ay By
Number of redundant structures = DI =1
Remove one reaction to get primary structures
Option 1, remove By as redundant Option 2 Remove MA as redundant

The redundant reaction can be replaced by 1 unit

force and the whole structure multiplied by By The redundant reaction can be replaced by 1 unit
Compatibility equation (sum of deflection at removed force and the whole structure multiplied by MA

MA*
By *

Compatibility equation (sum of deflection at removed

redundant location and direction redundant location and direction
𝛥𝐵 + 𝛥′BB = 𝛥𝐵 + 𝑓BB 𝐵𝑦 = 0 𝜃𝐴 + 𝜃′AA = 𝜃𝐴 + 𝑀AA 𝛼AA = 0
−𝛥𝐵
3.Rearranging unknown redun. Reaction 𝐵𝑦 = 3.Rearranging unknown redun. Reaction
𝑓BB
−𝜃𝐴
𝑀AA =
𝛼AA

48 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
 Maxwell’s Theorem of Reciprocal Displacements; Betti’s Law
This theorem is also known to as the theorem of reciprocal displacements and may be stated as follows:
The displacement of a point B on a structure due to a unit load acting at point A fBA is equal to the
displacement of point A when the unit load is acting at point B fAB

=
The theorem also applies for reciprocal rotations, and may be stated as follows: The rotation at point B on
a structure due to a unit couple moment acting at point A BA is equal to the rotation at point A when the
unit couple moment is acting at point B AB.
we may also state:
The rotation in radians at point B on a structure due to a unit load acting at point A is equal to the
displacement at point A when a unit couple moment is acting at point B.
Additional Remarks on the Force Method of Analysis
Now that the basic ideas regarding the force method have been developed,we will proceed to generalize
its application and discuss its usefulness.
When computing the flexibility coefficients, fij(or ij), for the structure, it will be noticed that they
depend only on the material and geometrical properties of the members and not on the loading of the
primary structure.
Hence these values, once determined, can be used to compute the reactions for any loading.
For a structure having n redundant reactions, we can write n compatibility equations, namely:

Here the displacements 𝜟𝟏 , 𝜟𝟐 . . . . 𝜟𝒏 , are caused by both the real loads on the primary structure and by
support settlement or dimensional changes due to temperature differences or fabrication errors in the
members. To simplify computation for structures having a large degree of indeterminacy,the above
equations can be recast into a matrix form,

49 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
 Or simply
In particular, note that fij = fji, a consequence of Maxwell’s theorem of reciprocal displacements (or
Betti’s law). Hence the flexibility matrix will be symmetric, and this feature is beneficial when solving
large sets of linear equations, as in the case of a highly indeterminate structure.
It is possible to determine the flexibility coefficients using the method of virtual work as it applies to the
entire structure. It is possible, however, to obtain these coefficients for each member of the structure, and
then, using transformation equations, to obtain their values for the entire structure. This approach is
covered in books devoted to matrix analysis of structures, and will not be covered in this module.
Three-Moment Equation
Three moment equation is an alternate formulations of the force (flexibility) method of analysis of
statically indeterminate continuous beams. The three-moment equation represents, in a general form, the
compatibility condition that the slope of the elastic curve be continuous at an interior support of the
continuous beam. Since the equation involves three moments—the bending moments at the support under
consideration and at the two adjacent supports—it commonly is referred to as the three-moment equation.
When using this method, the bending moments at the interior (and any fixed) supports of the continuous
beam are treated as the redundants. The three-moment equation is then applied at the location of each
redundant to obtain a set of compatibility equations which can be solved for the unknown redundant
moments.
DERIVATION OF THREE-MOMENT EQUATION
Consider an arbitrary continuous beam subjected to external loads and support settlements as shown in
Fig. below

This beam can be analyzed by the method of consistent deformations by treating the bending moments at
the interior supports to be the redundants. From Fig above we can see that the slope of the elastic curve
of the indeterminate beam is continuous at the interior supports. When the restraints corresponding to the
redundant bending moments are removed by inserting internal hinges at the interior support points, the
primary structure thus obtained consists of a series of simply supported beams.

50 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
 Primary Structure
When this primary structure is subjected to the known external loading and support settlements,
discontinuities develop in the slope of the elastic curve at the locations of the interior supports.
Redundant structure

Since the redundant bending moments provide continuity of the slope of the elastic curve, these unknown
moments are applied as loads on the primary structure as shown in Fig. above, and their magnitudes are
determined by solving the compatibility equations based on the condition that, at each interior support of
the primary structure, the slope of the elastic curve, due to the combined effect of the external loading,
support settlements, and unknown redundants, must be continuous. The three-moment equation uses the
foregoing compatibility condition of slope continuity at an interior support to provide a general
relationship between the unknown bending moments at the support where compatibility is being
considered and at the adjacent supports to the left and to the right, in terms of the loads on the
intermediate spans and any settlements of the three supports.
To derive the three-moment equation, we focus our attention on the compatibility equation at an interior
support c of the continuous beam,with prismatic spans and a constant modulus of elasticity. As indicated
in this figure, the adjacent supports to the left and to the right of c are identified as l and r, respectively;
the subscripts l and r are used to refer to the loads and properties of the left span, lc, and the right span, lr,
respectively; and the settlements of supports l; c, and r are denoted by l, c and r, respectively. The
support settlements are considered positive when in the downward direction,
figure.
51 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
we can see that the slope of the elastic curve of the indeterminate beam is continuous at c. In other words,
there is no change of slope of the tangents to the elastic curve at just to the left of c and just to the right of
c; that is, the angle between the tangents is zero. However, when the primary structure, obtained by
inserting internal hinges at the interior support points, is subjected to external loads, , a discontinuity
develops in the slope of the elastic curve at c, in the sense that the tangent to the elastic curve at just to
the left of c rotates relative to the tangent at just to the right of c.
The change of slope (or the angle) between the two tangents due to external loads is denoted by 1 and
can be expressed as 𝜃1 = 𝜃l1 + 𝜃r1
𝜃l1 and𝜃r1 denote, respectively, the slopes at the ends c of the spans to the left and to the right of the
support c, due to external loads.
Similarly, the slope discontinuity at c in the primary structure, due to support settlements, can be written
as 𝜃2 = 𝜃l2 + 𝜃r2
in which 𝜃l2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃r2 represent, respectively, the slopes of the spans to the left and to the right of c, due to
support settlements. Finally, when the primary structure is loaded with the redundant support bending
moments, the slope discontinuity at c can be expressed as 𝜃3 = 𝜃l3 + 𝜃r3
in which 𝜃l3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃r3 denote, respectively, the slopes at end c of the spansto the left and to the right of
the support c, due to unknown redundant moments.
The compatibility equation is based on the requirement that the slope of the elastic curve of the actual
indeterminate beam is continuous at c; that is, there is no change of slope from just to the left of c to just
to the right of c. Therefore, the algebraic sum of the angles between the tangents at just to the left and at
just to the right of c due to the external loading, support settlements and the redundant bending moments
must be zero. Thus ,
𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝜃3 = 0➔𝜃l1 + 𝜃r1 + 𝜃l2 + 𝜃r2 + 𝜃l3 + 𝜃r3 = 0

Since each span of the primary structure can be treated as a simply supported beam, the slopes at the ends
c of the left and the right spans,due to the external loads can be conveniently determined either by the
conjugate-beam method or by using the beam-deflection formulas given inside the front cover of the
book. By using the deflection formulas, we obtain
𝑃𝑙 𝐿𝑙 2 𝑘𝑙 (1−𝑘𝑙 2 ) 𝑤𝐿3
𝑙 𝑙 𝑃𝑟 𝐿𝑟 2 𝑘𝑟 (1−𝑘𝑟 2 ) 𝑤𝑟 𝐿𝑟 3
𝜃l1 = ∑ + 24EI , 𝜃r1 = ∑ +
= 6EI𝑙 𝑙 = 6EI𝑟 24EI𝑟

in which the summation signs have been added to the first terms on the right sides of these equations, so
that multiple concentrated loads can be applied to each span (instead of a single concentrated load as
shown in Figs above for simplicity). As continuous beams usually are loaded with uniformly distributed
loads over entire spans and concentrated loads, the effects of only these two types of loadings generally
are considered in the three-moment equation. However, the effects of other types of loads can be included
simply by adding the expressions of slopes due to these loads to the right sides.

52 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
The slopes 𝜃l2 and 𝜃r2 of the left and the right spans, respectively, due to support settlements, can be
obtained directly from the deformed positions of the spans. Since the settlements are assumed to be small,
𝛥𝑙 −𝛥𝐶 𝛥𝑟 −𝛥𝐶
the slopes can be expressed as 𝜃l2 = 𝜃r2 =
𝐿𝑙 𝐿𝑟

The slopes at ends c of the left and the right spans, due to redundant support bending moments, can be
determined conveniently by using the beam-deflection formulas. Thus,
𝑀𝑙 𝐿𝑙 𝑀𝑐 𝐿𝑙 𝑀𝑐 𝐿𝑟 𝑀𝑟 𝐿𝑟
𝜃l3 = 6EI𝑙
+ 3EI𝑙
𝜃r3 = +
3EI𝑟 6EI𝑟

in which 𝑀𝑙 , 𝑀𝑐 and 𝑀𝑟 denote the bending moments at supports l, c and r, respectively. These redundant
bending moments are considered to be positive in accordance with the beam convention—that is, when
causing compression in the upper fibers and tension in the lower fibers of the beam.
By substituting, we write the compatibility equation as
𝜃l1 + 𝜃r1 + 𝜃l2 + 𝜃r2 + 𝜃l3 + 𝜃r3 = 0
By simplifying the foregoing equation and rearranging it to separate the terms containing redundant
moments from those involving loads and support settlements, we obtain the general form of the three-
moment equation:
𝜃l1 + 𝜃r1 + 𝜃l2 + 𝜃r2 + 𝜃l3 + 𝜃r3 = 0

𝑃𝑙 𝐿𝑙 2 𝑘𝑙 (1 − 𝑘𝑙 2 ) 𝑃𝑟 𝐿𝑟 2 𝑘𝑟 (1 − 𝑘𝑟 2 ) 𝑤𝑟 𝐿𝑟 3 𝛥𝑙 − 𝛥𝐶 𝛥𝑟 − 𝛥𝐶 𝑀𝑙 𝐿𝑙 𝑀𝑐 𝐿𝑙 𝑀𝑐 𝐿𝑟 𝑀𝑟 𝐿𝑟
∑ +∑ + + + + + + + =0
6𝐸𝐼𝑙 6𝐸𝐼𝑟 24𝐸𝐼𝑟 𝐿𝑙 𝐿𝑟 6EI𝑙 3EI𝑙 3EI𝑟 6EI𝑟
= =

𝑀𝑙 𝐿𝑙 𝐿𝑙 𝐿𝑟 𝑀𝑟 𝐿𝑟 𝑃𝑙 𝐿𝑙 2 𝑘𝑙 (1 − 𝑘𝑙 2 ) 𝑤𝑙 𝐿𝑙 3 𝑃𝑟 𝐿𝑟 2 𝑘𝑟 (1 − 𝑘𝑟 2 ) 𝑤𝑟 𝐿𝑟 3 𝛥𝑙 − 𝛥𝐶 𝛥𝑟 − 𝛥𝐶
+ 2𝑀𝑐 ( + ) + = −∑ − −∑ − − 6𝐸( + )
𝐼𝑙 𝐼𝑙 𝐼𝑟 𝐼𝑟 = I𝑙 4I𝑙 I𝑟 4I𝑟 𝐿𝑙 𝐿𝑟
=

in which 𝑀𝐶 = bending moment at support c where the compatibility is being considered;

𝑀𝑙 , 𝑀𝑟 = bending moments at the adjacent supports to the left and to the right of c, respectively; E =
modulus of elasticity; 𝐿𝑙 , 𝐿𝑟 = lengths of the spans to the left and to the right of c, respectively;
I𝑙 ,I𝑟 = moments of inertia of the spans to the left and to the right of c, respectively; 𝑃𝑙 ,, 𝑃𝑟 = concentrated
loads acting on the left and the right spans, respectively; 𝑘𝑙 , 𝑘𝑟 = ratio of the distance of 𝑃𝑙 ,, (𝑃𝑟 ) from the
left (or right) support to the span length; 𝑤𝑙 , 𝑤𝑟 =¼ uniformly distributed loads applied to the left and the
right spans, respectively; 𝛥𝐶 = settlement of the support c under consideration; and 𝛥𝑙 , 𝛥𝑟 = settlements
of the adjacent supports to the left and to the right of c, respectively.
The external loads and support settlements are considered positive when in the downward direction,
If the moments of inertia of two adjacent spans of a continuous beam are equal (i.e., 𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼 ), then
the three-moment equation simplifies to

𝑤𝑙 𝐿𝑙 3 𝑤𝑟 𝐿𝑟 3 𝛥𝑙 − 𝛥𝐶 𝛥𝑟 − 𝛥𝐶
𝑀𝑙 𝐿𝑙 + 2𝑀𝑐 (𝐿𝑙 + 𝐿𝑟 ) + 𝑀𝑟 𝐿𝑟 = −∑𝑃𝑙 𝐿𝑙 2 𝑘𝑙 (1 − 𝑘𝑙 2 ) − − ∑ 𝑃𝑟 𝐿𝑟 2 𝑘𝑟 (1 − 𝑘𝑟 2 ) − − 6EI( + )
= 4 4 𝐿𝑙 𝐿𝑟
=

If both the moments of inertia and the lengths of two adjacent spans are equal (i.e., 𝐼𝑙 = 𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼 &𝑙𝑙 =
𝑙𝑟 = 𝐼 equation becomes, then the three-moment
53 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
 𝑤𝑙 𝐿2 𝑤𝑟 𝐿2
𝑀𝑙 + 4𝑀𝑐 + 𝑀𝑟 = −∑𝑃𝑙 𝐿𝑘𝑙 (1 − 𝑘𝑙 2 ) − − ∑ 𝑃𝑟 𝐿𝑘𝑟 (1 − 𝑘𝑟 2 ) − − 6EI(𝛥𝑙 − 2𝛥𝐶 + 𝛥𝑟 )
= 4 4
=

1. Select the unknown bending moments at all interior supports of the beam as the redundants.
2. By treating each interior support successively as the intermediate support c, write a three-moment
equation. When writing these equations, it should be realized that bending moments at the simple end
supports are known. For such a support with a cantilever overhang,the bending moment equals that due to
the external loads acting on the cantilever portion about the end support. The total number of three
moment equations thus obtained must be equal to the number of redundant supports bending moments,
which must be the only unknowns in these equations.
3. Solve the system of three-moment equations for the unknown support bending moments.
4. Compute the span end shears. For each span of the beam, (a) draw a free-body diagram showing the
external loads and end moments and (b) apply the equations of equilibrium to calculate the shear forces at
the ends of the span.
5. Determine support reactions by considering the equilibrium of the support joints of the beam.
6. If so desired, draw shear and bending moment diagrams of the beam by using the beam sign
convention.
Fixed end support:-Zero slope at the end supports: to achieve this the fixed support can be replaced by
imaginary interior roller support with in an adjoining end span of zero length simply supported at the
outer end. The reaction moment at the actual support is now treated as the redundant bending moment at
the imaginary interior support, and the three moment equation when applied to this imaginary support
satisfies the compatibility of zero slope of the elastic curve at the actual fixed support. when analyzing a
beam for support settlement, both imaginary supports i.e., the interior roller support and the outer simple
end support are considered to undergo the same settlement as the actual fixed support.

54 FTVTI,CTF,BCTD
 Chapter 5
Influence lines for statically determinate structures
Structures generally are also subjected to loads (such as live loads and environmental loads) whose
positions may vary on the structure. In this part, we study the analysis of statically determinate structures
subjected to moving loads.
The variation of the reactions internal forces (e.g. shear, bending moment etc.) in the member is best
described using the influence line.
An influence line represents the variation of either the reaction, internal forces ( shear, moment, etc) or
deflection at a specific point in a member as a concentrated unit force( force whose magnitude is one)
moves over the member.
Once this influence line is constructed, one can tell at a glance where the moving load should be placed
on the structure so that it creates the greatest influence at the specified point. Furthermore, the
magnitude of the associated reaction, shear, moment, or deflection at the point can then be calculated
from the ordinates of the influence-line diagram. For these reasons, influence lines play an important part
in the design of bridges, industrial crane rails, conveyors, and other structures where loads move across
their span.
Influence line for statically determinate beam.
Free body diagram

Ax

Ay By

Reactions + →Σ Fx =0, Ax = 0

Internal force ( shear and bending moment) at C

Cutting a section at c

L-a

MB 0 BY L a M x 0

⟹𝑀(𝑥)=𝑥/𝐿*(𝐿−𝑎)
Influence line for reaction

plotting from x=0 to x=L Plotting Line from from x=0 to x=L

55 FTVTI,CTF, BCTD
Influence line for shear at C ( at “a” distance from the left support)

V=(L-a)/L

x=a

V=-a/L

Influence line for Moment at C ( at “a” distance from the left support)

(a, a(L-a)/L)

Since beams (or girders) often form the main load-carrying elements of a floor system or bridge deck, it
is important to be able to construct the influence lines for the reactions, shear, or moment at any specified
point in a beam.
Loadings. Once the influence line for a function (reaction, shear, or moment) has been constructed, it will
then be possible to position the live loads on the beam which will produce the maximum value of the
function. Two types of loadings will now be considered.
Concentrated Force. Since the numerical values of a function for an influence line are determined using
a dimensionless unit load, then for any concentrated force F acting on the beam at any position x, the
value of the function can be found by multiplying the ordinate of the influence line at the position x by
the magnitude of F.

56 FTVTI,CTF, BCTD
For example, consider the influence line for the reaction at A
for the beam AB. If the unit load is at the reaction at x=L/2 the
reaction at A is Ay = ½ as indicated from the influence line.
Hence, if the force F is at this same point, the reaction Ay is ½F
Of course, this same value can also be determined by statics.
Obviously, the maximum influence caused by F occurs when it
is laced on the beam at the same location as the peak of the
influence line - in this case at where the reaction would be
Ay=(1)(F)
Uniform Load. Consider a portion of a beam subjected to
a uniform load Fig.rigth As shown, each dx segment of
this load creates a concentrated force of on the beam. If dF
is located at x, where the beam’s influence-line ordinate
for some function (reaction, shear, moment) is y, then the
value of the function is 𝑤𝑜 ⅆ𝑥
The effect of all the concentrated forces dF is determined
by integrating over the entire length of the beam, that
is∫ 𝑤𝑜 𝑦 ⅆ𝑥 = 𝑤𝑜 ∫ 𝑦 ⅆ𝑥, Also, since is equivalent to the
area under the influence line, then, in general, the value of
a function caused by a uniform distributed load is simply
the area under the influence line for the function multiplied
by the intensity of the uniform load.
For example, in the case of a uniformly loaded beam, the
reaction can be determined from the influence line as
1 1
𝐴 = area ∗ 𝑤𝑜 = 2 ∗ 1 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝑤𝑜 = 2 𝑤𝑜 𝐿. This value can of

course also be determined from statics

Qualitative Influence Lines

It is referred to as the MüllerBreslau principle, it states that the influence line for a function (reaction,
shear, or moment) is to the same scale as the deflected hape of the beam when the beam is acted upon by
the function. In order to draw the deflected shape properly, the capacity of the beam to resist the applied
function must be removed so the beam can deflect when the function is applied.
For example, consider the beam in Fig right. If the shape of the
influence line for the vertical reaction at A is to be determined, the
pin is first replaced by a roller guide as shown in Fig.. A roller guide is necessary since the beam must
still resist a horizontal force at A but no vertical force. When the positive (upward) force is then applied
at A, the beam deflects to the dashed position, which represents the general shape of the influence line
57 FTVTI,CTF, BCTD
The proof of the Müller-Breslau principle can be established using
the principle of virtual work. Recall that work is the product of
either a linear
Other examples
Influence line e for shear at C for the following beam

Influence line e for Bending moment at C for the following beam

Influence Lines for Floor Girders

Occasionally, floor systems are constructed as shown in Fig. below, where it can be seen that floor loads
are transmitted from slabs to floor beams, then to side girders, and finally supporting columns. An
idealized model of this system is shown in plane view, Fig below.

58 FTVTI,CTF, BCTD
Idealized model

Here the slab is assumed to be a one-way slab and is segmented into simply supported spans resting on
the floor beams. Furthermore, the girder is simply supported on the columns. Since the girders are main
load-carrying members in this system, it is sometimes necessary to construct their shear and moment
influence lines. This is especially true for industrial buildings subjected to heavy concentrated loads. In
this regard, notice that a unit load on the floor slab is transferred to the girder only at points where it is in
contact with the floor beams, i.e., points A, B, C, and D. These points are called panel points, and the
region between these points is called a panel, such as BC
The influence line for a specified point on the girder can be determined using the same statics procedure
i.e., place the unit load at various points x on the floor slab and always compute the function (shear or
moment) at the specified point P in the girder. Plotting these values versus x yields the influence line for
the function at P. In particular, the value for the internal moment in a girder panel will depend upon
where point P is chosen for the influence line, since the magnitude of depends upon the point’s location
from the end of the girder.
For example, if the unit load acts on the floor slab as shown
in Fig. (left),
one first finds the reactions and on the slab, then calculates
the support reactions and on the girder. The internal moment
at P is then determined by the method of sections, Fig.
(right.)
This gives Using a similar
analysis, the internal shear can be
determined. In this case, however, will be constant throughout the panel and
so it does not depend upon the exact location d of P within the panel. For this
reason, influence lines for shear in floor girders are specified for panels in the
girder and not specific points along the girder. The shear is then referred to as panel shear. It should also

59 FTVTI,CTF, BCTD
be noted that since the girder is affected only by the loadings transmitted by the floor beams, the unit load
is generally placed at each floor-beam location to establish the necessary data used to draw the influence
line.
Influence Lines for Trusses
Trusses are often used as primary load-carrying elements for bridges. Hence, for design it is important to
be able to construct the influence lines for each of its members.

As shown in Fig above, the loading on the bridge deck is transmitted to stringers, which in turn transmit
the loading to floor beams and then to the joints along the bottom cord of the truss. Since the truss
members are affected only by the joint loading, we can therefore obtain the ordinate values of the
influence line for a member by loading each joint along the deck with a unit load and then use the method
of joints or the method of sections to calculate the force in the member. The data can be arranged in
tabular form, listing “unit load at joint” versus “force in member.” As a convention, if the member force
is tensile it is considered a positive value; if it is compressive it is negative. The influence line for the
member is constructed by plotting the data and drawing straight lines between the points. The following
examples illustrate the method of construction.
Maximum Influence at a Point due to a Series of Concentrated Loads
Once the influence line of a function has been established for a point in a structure, the maximum effect
caused by a live concentrated force is determined by multiplying the peak ordinate of the influence line
by the magnitude of the force. In some cases, however, several concentrated forces must be placed on the
structure. An example would be the wheel loadings of a truck or train. In order to determine the
maximum effect in this case, either a trial-and-error procedure can be used or a method that
is based on the change in the function that takes place as the load is moved.

60 FTVTI,CTF, BCTD
When many concentrated loads act on the span, the trial-and-error computations used above can be
tedious. Instead, the critical position of the loads can be determined in a more direct manner by finding
the change in shear V or M, which occurs when the loads are moved from Case 1 to Case 2, then from
Case 2 to Case 3, and so on. As long as each computed V or M is positive, the new position will yield a
larger shear in the beam at C than the previous position. Each movement is investigated until a negative
change in shear is computed. When this occurs, the previous position of the loads will give the critical
value. The change in shear or moment V or M for a load P that moves from position x1 to x2 over a
beam can be determined by multiplying P by the change in the ordinate of the influence line, that is, (y2-
y1) If the slope of the influence line is s, then (y2-y1)=s (x2-x1) and therefore
𝚫𝐕 = 𝑷𝒔(𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏 ) = 𝑷(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ) where s ,y1 and y2 are slope and ordinate of influence line for shear
ΔM = 𝑃𝑠(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) = 𝑃(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )where s ,y1 and y2 are slope and ordinate of influence line for moment
If the load moves past a point where there is a discontinuity or “jump” in the influence line, , then the
change in shear is 𝚫𝐕 = 𝑷(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ) y1 and y2 are ordinate of influence line for shear just after and just
before the jump
Absolute Maximum Shear and Moment
A more general problem involves the determination of both the location of the point in the beam and the
position of the loading on the beam so that one can obtain the absolute maximum shear and moment
caused by the loads.
If the beam is cantilevered or simply supported, this problem can be readily solved.
Shear. For a cantilevered beam the absolute maximum shear
will occur at a point located just next to the fixed support.
The maximum shear is found by the method of sections, with
the loads positioned anywhere on the span,

For simply supported beams the absolute maximum shear will

occur just next to one of the supports. For example, if the
loads are equivalent, they are positioned so that the first one in
sequence is placed close to the support,.

Moment. The absolute maximum moment for a cantilevered

beam occurs at a point located just next to the fixed support,
the concentrated loads should be positioned at the far end of the
beam
For a simply supported beam the critical position of the loads and the associated absolute maximum
moment cannot, in general, be determined by inspection. The absolute maximum moment in a simply
supported beam occurs under one of the concentrated forces, such that this force is positioned on the

61 FTVTI,CTF, BCTD
 beam so that it and the resultant force of the system are equidistant from the beam’s centerline.

62 FTVTI,CTF, BCTD