Unit 1

 Introduction:

 Cellular concept:

1) The aim of the early mobile radio system was to provide coverage to a large area with the
help of a single high power transmitter having an antenna mounted on a tall towe
2) This approach had the following disadvantages:
i. Frequency reuse was not possible.
ii. Proper spectrum allocation in proportion with increasing demand was not possible.
3) Hence it became necessary to restructure to radio telephone system so as to achieve the
following objectives:
i. High capacity.
ii. To utilize the available radio spectrum effectively.
iii. Coverage of large areas.
4) The major breakthrough in this field was the introduction of the cellular concept.

 Advantages of cellular concept:

The cellular concept offered the following advantages:

1. Improved user capacity.
2. No spectral congestion.
3. No major technological changes.
4. Efficient utilization of the available spectrum.

In the cellular systems, a single high power transmitter

is (large cell) is replaced by many low power transmitter
(small cells) as shown in Fig.

1 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

  Basic Concept:

1) Cellular phone is wireless communication just like cordless phone.

2) In cell phone distance is not restricted to within home but one can travel in the city or even
outside the city without interruption in communication.

3) The demand for cellular mobile phone is increasing at alarming level and is likely that wired
communication will be replaced by wireless technology.

4) In the cellular system city is divided into small areas called 'cells'. Each cell is around 10
square kilometre (depends upon power of base station).

MTSO or MSC:

1) The cells are normally thought of hexagons. Because cell phones and base stations use low
power transmitters, the same frequencies can be reused in non-adjacent cell.

2) Each cell is (The cellular network is as shown in Fig. A.2.1) linked to central location called
the Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO).
3) It is also called as Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
4) MTSO coordinates all mobile calls between an area which consists of several cell sites and
the central office. Time and billing information for each mobile unit is accounted for by
MTSO.
5) At the cell site base station is provided to transmit, receive, and switch calls to and from any
mobile unit within the cell to the MTSO.
6) A cell covers only few square kilometre area, thus reducing the power requirement
necessary communicate with cellular telephones.

Cell:
1) The basic geographic unit of a cellular
communication system is called as a cell.
2) Its shape is hexagonal as shown in Fig. Cells have
the base stations transmitting over small
geographic areas.
3) The size of a cell is not fixed. Practically the shape
of the cell may not be a perfect hexagon.
4) The hexagonal shape has been adopted
universally because it allows easy and
manageable analysis of a cellular system.

Cluster:
1) A group of cells is called as a cluster.
2) Fig. shows the cluster of seven cells or a seven cell cluster. (n = 7)
3) The cluster size (n) is not fixed. It depends on the requirements of a particular area.

 Advantages of Cellular Concept:

1. Only a fixed number of channels (frequency slots) are required to be used. This is because the
same frequencies can be used for multiple cells due to the principle of frequency re-use.
2. Large area can be covered.
3. Low power transmitters can be used as the cell area is small.
2 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes
4. Every piece of subscriber equipment (e.g. mobile handset) within a country or continent can be
manufactured with the same set of channels so any mobile can be used anywhere.

 Mobile Wireless Systems:

We are familiar with a large number of mobile radio systems such as:
1. Cordless telephone
2. Pagers
3. Walky-Talky
4. Cellular phones
1) Each one of them are called as the mobile radio system but they are different as far as their
cost, complexity, performance and type of service provided are concerned.
2) The term mobile is used to indicate any radio terminal that can move during the operation at
a rapid speed.
3) The term portable is used for a radio terminal which can be handheld and used by a person
who is walking i.e not moving too fast.
4) Subscriber is the term used to define a mobile or portable user and the communication
device of each subscriber is called as subscriber unit.
5) Users or mobiles are the terms used for describing a group of users in a wireless system.

 Important Definitions:

Following are some of the important definitions of terms used in wireless communication system.
1. Base station :
It is defined as a fixed (non-moving) station in a mobile radio system,
which communicates with the mobile stations as shown in Fig.
Base stations are located at the center or on the edge of a region being
covered. It consists of transmitter antenna, receiver antenna and radio
channels mounted on a tower.
2. Control channel:
It is defined as the radio channel used for transmitting the control
signals such as call set up, call request, call initiation as well as the
control information.
3. Forward channel:
It is defined as the radio channel used for transmitting the information
from the base station to the mobile i.e. in the forward direction.
4. Reverse channel:
It is defined as the radio channel used for transmitting the information from a mobile to base station
i.e. in the reverse direction.
5. Mobile station :
It is defined as a station in the cellular radio service which is used when in motion at an unspecified
location.
Mobile stations can be portable hand held personal units or they can be the ones installed in
vehicles.
6. Hand-off:
It is the process of transferring the connection with a mobile station from one base station to the
other when the mobile station moves from the service area of one base station into that of the other.
7. Mobile switching center (MSC or MTSO):
It is defined as the center which is set up for coordinating the routing of calls. An MSC is also
called as MTSO Le. mobile telephone switching office.
8. Transceiver :

3 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

It is a unit containing transmitter as well as receiver. It can simultaneously transmit as well as
receive.
9. Half duplex system:
These systems are bidirectional, i.e. they can transmit as well as receive but not simultaneously.
At a time these systems can either transmit or receive, for example a transreceiver or walky talky
set.
The direction of communication will keep changing itself. The radio communications such as those
used in military, fire fighting, citizen band (CB) and amateur radio are half duplex system.
10. Full duplex systems:
These are truly bidirectional systems as they allow the communication to take place in both the
directions simultaneously.
These systems can transmit as well as receive simultaneously, for example the telephone systems.

 Frequency Reuse

1) In frequency reuse concept the radio channels use the same

frequency to cover different areas that are physically separate
from each other.

2) In frequency reuse it is necessary to see that the co channel

interference is not objectionable.

3) Frequency reuse is an important concept because in this a single

transmitter of higher power need not be used to cover the entire
area.

4) Instead many transmitters of small output power operating at the same frequency can be
used.
5) This technique also reduces the minimum height of the transmitting antenna, because now
each antenna has to cover a small area.

6) Frequency reuse is a very important concept of

the cellular mobile radio system.

7) The users located in different geographical areas

i.e. different cells can use the same frequency
simultaneously.

8) The advantage of frequency reuse is that it drastically increases the spectrum efficiency but
the disadvantage is that if the system is not designed properly then co-channel interference
may take place.

 Advantages of frequency reuse:

1. A single transmitter of high power need not be used to cover the entire area.

2. Many transmitters of small power working at the same frequency can be used.

3. This technique reduces the minimum height of the antenna.

4. The users located in different geographical areas i.e. different cells can simultaneously. use the
same frequency
4 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes
5. It drastically increases the spectrum efficiency.

 Cell Splitting:
Definition:
1) Cell splitting is the technique of dividing a larger cell into smaller cells to increase capacity
in congested areas.
2) Separate antennas are placed in smaller cells which transmit low power compared to larger
cells.
Concept:
In order to improve the spectrum efficiency of a cellular mobile systems, we can take the following
two steps:
1 Implement some frequency reuse technique.
2. Use the cell splitting technique.
Every cell is supposed to handle a particular value of maximum
traffic.
But sometimes the demand (traffic) is higher than this maximum
permissible traffic which can be handled by a cell.
Under such circumstances, a technique called cell splitting is used
for handling the increased traffic within that cell.
In cell splitting, the cell boundaries are changed in such a way that the local area which was earlier
considered as one single cell will now contain a number of smaller calls.
These new cells which are smaller than the original cells are called microcells.
Thus in cell splitting the original cell is split into smaller cells.

 Cell Sectoring :
Definition :
1) Sectoring is another method of increasing the number of channels per unit area. But the
technique is different from that used for cell splitting.
2) Sectoring is a technique in which an omni directional antenna at the base station is replaced
by several directional antennas.
3) In sectoring, the cell radius R is kept constant and the D/R ratio is decreased.
Concept:
1) The sectoring technique is used for increasing the signal to interference ratio (SIR) so as to
reduce the cluster size N.
2) In the sectoring approach, the SIR improves due to the use of directional antennas and the
system capacity increases as the number of cells are reduced in a cluster and the frequency
reuse is increased.
3) However all this can be achieved only if we reduce the interference by keeping the
transmitter unchanged.
4) The co-channel interference is reduced by replacing the omni-directional antenna at the base
station by several directional antennas.
5) Each directional antenna is allowed to radiate within a specific sector, so that the
transmitters in adjacent cells will not interfere with each other.
6) The amount of reduction in the co-channel interference depends on the amount of sectoring.

Types of sectoring :
There are two types of sectoring as shown in Fig. 120° sectoring and 60⁰ sectoring.
In the 120° sectoring, a cell is divided into three
sectors, with each sector occupying 120° whereas
in 60° sectoring a cell is split into six sectors
with each sector occupying 60°.
5 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes
While carrying out the sectoring, the channels used in a cell are divided into sectored groups (3 or
6) and used only within a particular sector (1, 2, 3 or 1, 2, ..., 6) as shown in Fig.

Advantages:
1 It improves the signal to interference ratio (SIR).

2. It increases the system capacity.

3. It reduces the interference.

4. It reduces the cluster size and provides freedom to assign channels.

Disadvantages :
1. It increases the number of directional antennas at each base station.

2. The coverage area is reduced which results in increase in number of handoffs.

3. There is a reduction in trunk traffic

 Repeaters for Range Extension :

Definition:
1) A repeater is a connecting device. All transmission media weaken the electromagnetic
waves that travel through them.
2) Attenuation of signals limits the distance
any medium can carry data. Devices that
amplify signals to ensure data
transmission are called repeaters.
3) Function of a Repeater:
4) A repeater receives a signal and before it
gets attenuated or corrupted, regenerates
the original signal. Thus we can use a
repeater to extend the range of communication.
5) Repeater is not an amplifier because amplifiers simply amplify the entire incoming signal
along with noise.
6) Signal regenerating repeaters create an exact - duplicate of incoming data by identifying it
amidst the noise, reconstructing it and retransmitting only the desired information.
7) The original signal is duplicated, boosted to its original strength and sent as shown in Fig.

 What is Personal Communication?

1) A PCS provides people with wireless access to information service e.g. Cordless, cellular,
mobile data networks etc.
2) Mobility* is the heart of PCS (the ability to move or be moved freely and easily.)
3) Personal Communication Services(PCS) refers to wide variety of a wireless access and
personal mobility services provided through a small terminal, with the goal of enabling the
communication at any time, at any place, and in any form.
4) PCS provides the user with an all-in-one wireless phone, paging, messaging, and data
service.

6 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

  PCS Architecture

• Radio Network

1. PCS use Mobile Station (MS) to communicate with the Base Station (BS) in a PCS
Network.

2. n a PCS network, PCS users carry MSs (Mobile Stations) to communicate with the BSC
(base station)

3. MS can be a handset, subscriber unit or mobile phone

4. A cell is the radio coverage of a base station Through the dedicated microwave links or land
links, the base station will reach the wireline transport network.

5. In GSM network, through base station, BSC (Base Station Controller) controls every cell
that is connected to mobile station.

BSCs are connected to MSC with the help of landlines

Wireline transport network:

1) In a PCS network MSC (Mobile Station Controller) acts as a special switch which is
connected to the base station.

2) The MSC is connected to the PSTN to provide the services between the PCS users and
wireline users. MSCs are connected to the mobility database to keep the track of location of
mobile station.

3) The mobility databases are HLR (Home Location Register) and VLR (Visitor Location
Register).

4) HLR includes the authentication information such as IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber
Identity), identification information such as address, name of the subscriber, operator
selection, billing information, denial of service to a subscribe etc.

5) VLR includes data about the location area of subscriber in case of power off status of the
handset or in roaming.

6) PCS architecture divides into to 3 subsystem i.e.Base Station Subsystem(BSS),Network

Switching Subsystem (NSS) and Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

7 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

  Mobile station

1) PCS use mobile stations (MSs) to communicate with the base stations (BSs) in a PCS
network.

2) MS is also referred to as handset, mobile phone, subscriber unit, or portable.

3) Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most widely known, cell or
mobile phones are the section of a GSM cellular network.

4) In recent years their size has fallen dramatically while the level of functionality has greatly
increased.

5) There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements are the
main hardware and the SIM.

6) It contains a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is
installed in the phone at manufacture and “cannot” be changed. It is accessed by the
network during registration to check whether the equipment has been reported as stolen.

7) The SIM or Subscriber Identity Module contains the information that provides the identity
of the user to the network. It contains variety of information including a number known as
the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).

 Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

 The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the GSM network architecture that is
fundamentally associated with communicating with the mobiles on the network. It consists
of two elements:

 Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS comprises the radio transmitter receivers, and
their associated antennas that transmit and receive to directly communicate with the
mobiles. The BTS is the defining element for each cell. The BTS communicates with the
mobiles and the interface between the two is known as the Um interface.

 Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM
network. It controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-located with one of the BTSs in its
group. It manages the radio resources

 Global System for Mobile Communications(GSM)

1) GSM is the world’s first cellular system to specify the digital Modulation.
2) Global Systems for Mobile(GSM) is a second generation (2G) cellular standard developed
in Europe in order to solve the fragmentation problems of the first generation cellular
systems.
3) It is developed to cater voice services and data delivery using digital modulation.
4) GSM uses TDMA technique for multiple access.

 GSM Services are of Two types:

i. Teleservices
ii. Data Services

8 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

 Teleservices are the services corresponding to the standard mobile telephony and the traffic
originated from either teleservices or data services.
Data services are the GSM services corresponding to the communication between
computers and packet switched traffic.
• The user services are of the following three categories:
1. Telephone services
2. Bearer services or data services
3. Supplementary ISDN services.

1. Telephone services:
The following services are called as telephone services:
1. Emergency calling
2. FAX
3. Videotext
4. Teletext

2. Bearer or data services:

• These services correspond to the transfer of data between computers and packet switched
traffic.
3. Supplementary ISDN services:
The following services, that are digital in nature are known as supplementary ISDN services:
1. Call diversion
2. Closed user group
3. Caller Identification
4. SMS (upto 160 words)

3.Teleservices:
Basically the standard mobile telephony and the mobile originated or base originated traffic comes
under the teleservices.
The teleservices are as follows:
1. Digital telephony.
2. Emergency number.
3. SMS.
4. EMS.
5. MMS.

1. Digital telephony:
• The main service of GSM is to provide a high quality digital voice transmission, with a
minimum bandwidth of 3.1 kHz.
• Special codecs (combination of coder and decoder) are used for transmission of voice
digitally.
2. Emergency number:
• With this GSM service the same emergency number can be used throughout a country. This
is a mandatory but free service with the highest connection priority.
• If this number is dialled, then the call with the nearest emergency center is set up
automatically.
3. Short Message Service (SMS):
• With this service the user can send messages upto 160 characters. SMS messages are not
transmitted over the standard data channels of GSM.
• Instead they are sent over the unused capacity of signaling channels.
• Hence SMS sending and receiving is possible even when the voice or data is being
transmitted.
9 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes
 • SMS can transfer logos, ring tones, horoscopes alongwith the text messages. It is also
possible to update the software of a mobile phone via SMS.
4. Enhanced Message Service (EMS):
• EMS is the successor of SMS which offers a message size of upto 760 characters.
5. Multimedia Message Service (MMS):
• With this service, it is possible to transmit large pictures (GIF, JPEG) and short video clips.
MSS is integral part of mobile phones with an inbuilt camera.

4. Supplementary Services: Call related services

1. Conference Call: This service allows a mobile subscriber to start a conference call i.e. a
simultaneous conversation takes place between three or more mobile subscribers.
2. Call Waiting: During a conversation this service informs a mobile subscriber about an incoming
call. The user can answer, reject, or ignore the incoming call while conversing.
3. Call Hold: This service allows a user to put an incoming call on hold and after a while call can
be resumed.
4. Call Forwarding: To divert calls from the original recipient to another number call forwarding
service is used. The user himself can set up this service on his/her mobile.
5. Call Barring: To restrict some type of calls such as outgoing calls like ISD or incoming calls
from unwanted numbers call barring service is useful.
6. Caller Identification: On your mobile screen, this service displays the telephone number of the
person who is calling. It displays telephone number of a person to whom you are connected.
7. Suggestion of Charge: This service informs the user about the cost of the services used by them
8. Closed User Groups: This service is intended for the group of subscribers who want to call only
each other in the group.

 Features of GSM

1. GSM can support more subscribers in the given spectrum.

2. The short messaging service (SMS) is provided by the GSM standard, that allows its subscribers
to transmit and receive character text messages.
3. GSM has a subscriber identity module (SIM), which is a memory device that stores all the
important information like subscriber's identification number.
4. Each subscriber is allotted a four digit personal ID number the activates service from any GSM
phone. The SIMs are smart cards or plug-in modules. Each subscriber needs to insert his SIMs into
a mobile phone, to receive GSM calls to the number irrespective of the location.
5. The GSM system provides the on-the-air privacy by encrypting the digital bit stream sent by the
GSM transmitter.
6.The same GSM phone can be used in different networks.
7. The data transmission and reception rate supported across GSM networks is 9600 bps.
8. GSM also supports FAX transmission and reception at 9.6 kbps.
9. The size of GSM handsets is much smaller.
10. GSM supports the facilities like call forwarding, call on hold, conferencing, Calling Number
Identification Presentation (CLIP) and international roaming
11. GSM is compatible with ISDN for supplementary services.

• Following are the two most important GSM feature

1. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM)

2. On air privacy.

1. Subscriber Identity Module (SIM):

10 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes
 • The SIM card of a GSM phone is nothing but a memory device that stores some very
important information like, identification number of the subscriber, the type of network and
the countries in which the services can be provided to the subscriber.
• In addition it also stores the unique privacy key for the subscriber for decrypting the
encrypted received messages and other important information. A SIM is required to activate
service for any GSM phone.
• Without a SIM all GSM mobile phone cannot operate.
2. On air privacy:
• On-air privacy is the second important feature of GSM. On-air privacy indicates that the
GSM system ensures some kind of privacy of the transmitted signal. The analog FM cellular
system calls can be easily monitored because no on air privacy is provided. However the
GSM transmitters use encryption to encode the signals before transmitting them which
makes them a lot safer and hard to monitor.

 GSM System Architecture

1) The BTS and BSC both are part of the Base Station Subsystem (BSS).
2) Each BSS is made of many BSCs (Base Station Controllers) and all BSCs are connected to
a single MSC.
Each BSC has hundreds of BTSs. (Bus Transceiver Stations) connected to it. These BTSS
are controlled by the corresponding BSCs.
3) The BTSS are connected to BSCs either physically or via microwave links or dedicated
leased lines.
4) The interface between BTS to BSC is called as Abis interface. This interface is expected to
carry the voice data (traffic) and maintenance data.
5) The BSCs are physically connected to MSC (Mobile Switching Center) via dedicated /
leased lines or microwave link. This interface is known as the A interface.
6) The NSS contains three different databases, called Home Location Register (HLR), Visitor
Location Register (VLR) and Authentication Center (AUC).
7) The HLR is a database containing the subscriber information and location information of
each user, who is staying in the same city as MSC.
8) Each subscriber is assigned a unique International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) and
this number will identify each user.
9) VLR database is used to temporarily store the IMSI and customer information for each
roaming subscriber.

11 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

 10) AUC is the strongly protected database which takes care of authentication and handles the
encryption keys for all the subscribers in HLR and VLR.
11) The OSS supports one or more Operation Maintenance Centers (OMC). The OMC is used
for monitoring and maintaining the performance of each MS, BS, BSC and MSC used in a
GSM system.

 GSM Interfaces

• Um interface The "air" or radio interface standard that is used for exchanges between a
mobile (ME) and a base station (BTS / BSC). For signaling, a modified version of the ISDN
LAPD, known as LAPDm is used.
• Abis interface This is a BSS internal interface linking the BSC and a BTS, and it has not
been totally standardized. The Abis interface allows control of the radio equipment and
radio frequency allocation in the BTS.
• A interface The A interface is used to provide communication between the BSS and the
MSC. The interface carries information to enable the channels, timeslots and the like to be
allocated to the mobile equipment being serviced by the BSSs. The messaging required
within the network to enable handover etc. to be undertaken is carried over the interface.

Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

• Encodes, encrypts, multiplexes, modulates and feeds RF signals to antenna.
• Communicates with Mobile station and BSC(Base station controller)
• Consists of Transceivers(TRX) units

Base Station Controller (BSC)

• Manages Radio resources for BTS(Base Transceiver Station).
• Assigns frequency and time slots for all MS’s in its area.
• Handles call setup
• Handover for each MS
• It communicates with MSC and BTS

12 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

  GSM Specifications


 GSM frequency

GSM Originally used two 25MHz cellular bands but now it is used in many bands. Two 25MHz
bands are as follows.
i. GSM 900:
890-915 MHz UPLINK or reverse link from subscriber to base transmission.
935-960MHz DOWNLINK or forward link

ii. GSM 1900:

1850-1910 MHz UPLINK
1930-1990 MHz DOWNLINK

iii. GSM 1800:

1710-1785 MHz UPLINK
1805-1880 MHz DOWNLINK

13 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

  Frame Structure of GSM System

 GSM channel types


• GSM channels are of two types:
1. Physical Channel
2. Logical Channel

Logical Channel
1. GSM traffic channels (TCHS).
2. Control channels (CCHs).
• The traffic channels (TCHs) are supposed to carry
speech or data signals that are encoded into digital
form.
• Their functions and formats on forward as well as reverse links are the same.
• The base station uses the control channels to communicate the signaling and
synchronization commands to the mobile station.
The control channels (CCH) defined for the forward links and those defined for the reverse
links are entirely differen

14 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

Traffic Channels

• GSM has two types of traffic channels

TCH/FS stands for traffic channel at Full rate speech
TCH/HS stands for traffic channel at half rate speech
• It is used both in the uplink and downlink after
mobile has established connection with the GSM
cell (BTS).
• It uses 26 frame multi frame structure.

Control channel
1. Control Channels
Control Channels further consists of three Groups namely
Broadcast Channel, Common Control Channel and
Dedicated Control Channel.
1. Broadcast Control Channel

• Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)

• The Broadcast Control Channels are downlink
only (BSS to MS) . It also sends control
information to MS (Mobile Station). The
information carried on the BCCH is monitored by
the MS periodically (at least every 30 sec), when it is switched on and not in a call.

• Synchronization Channel (SCH)

The Synchronizing Channel (SCH) helps to synchronise TDMA Frame. The MS will
monitor BCCH information from surrounding cells and stores the information.
• Frequency Correction Channel (FCH)
Frequency Correction Channel (FCCH) allows the mobile to synchronize its own frequency to that
of the transmitting base site. It acts as a flag to the mobile to identify Timeslot 0 because it may
only sent during time slot 0 on BCCH carrier frequency.

2. Common Control Channel

• The Common Control Channel (CCCH) is responsible for transferring control information
between all mobiles and the BTS
• Random Access Control Channel (RACH)
Random Access Channel (RACH) helps MS to assign with network and used by the mobile when it
requires to gain access to the system . This occurs when the mobile initiates a call or responds to a
page.
• Paging Control Channel (PCH)
Paging Control Channel (PCH) helps network to assign with MS and also used by BTS (Base
transceiver station) to page MS.

• Access Grant Control Channel (AGCH)

Access Grant Control Channel (AGCH) is used by network to assign signalling upon successful
decodation of Burst.
• Cell Broadcast Control Channel (CBCH)
Cell Broadcast Control Channel (CBCH) tells from which BTS (Base Transceiver Station) we are
getting coverage

15 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

 3. Dedicated Control Channels

• Dedicated Control Channels are both Uplink and Downlink and has further categories:
SDCCH, SACCH, and FACCH

• Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel (SACH)

Stand Alone Dedicated Control Channel (SDCCH) is used by MS for Location Updation, SMS, and
Authentication.

• Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH)

Slow Associated Control Channel (SACCH) sends control information (Power Control) in
downlink and measurement reports (Link Quality Reports) in uplink.

• Fast Associated Control Channel (FACCH)

Fast Associated Control Channel is transmitted instead of a TCH. The FACCH ‘‘steals” the TCH
(Traffic Control Channel) burst and inserts its own information. The FACCH is used to carry out
user authentication, handovers and immediate assignmentrol Channel

 Signal Processing in GSM

1. The MS (Handset) plays an important role in transmission process. The function of MS is

transmission (uplink) and reception (Downlink) of voice or data through air interface. Main
aim of transmission process is how to make Burst or Time slot in TDMA Frame.

Stage - I: Analog to Digital (A/D) conversion

The primary function of an MS is to convert the analog signal (speech) information in
digital form for transmission using a digital signal. The analog to Digital (A/D) conversion
Process outputs collection of bits, binary ones and zero which represent the speech input.
The A/D conversion is performed by using a process called pulse code modulation (PCM)

The PCM involves three main steps:

• Sampling

16 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

• Quantization

• Coding

Step - I: Sampling :

It is the process of measuring the input (Analog)

signal at specific time intervals.

Step II: Quantization

It is the process of measuring amplitude of sampled signal. This is a step to give each sample a
particular value. For this reason, the amplitude of the signal at the time of sampling is measured and
approximated to one of a finite set of values.

Step III: Coding the measured amplitude into a series of binary values, which are
transmitted by modulation of a pulsed, or intermittent, carrier.

Stage - II: Channel Coding

Channel coding in GSM uses the 260 bit from speech coding as input to channel coding and outputs
456 encoded bits. The 260 bits are split into three categories:

Block-1 50 bit - very important bit

Block-2: 132 bit- Important bit

Block-3: 78 bit - Not so important

Channel
260-bit blocks 13 kbps 22.8 kbps 456-bit blocks
Coding

17 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

Mathematically:

Convolution coder input = 53 + 132+4=189 bits

coder output = 189 x2=378 bits

Hence Total output = (378+78) = 456 bits

Stage -V: Interleaving:

The channel coder provides 456 bit for every 20 msec of speech. These are interleaved, forming
eight block of 57 bits (456/8) each, as shown in following figure-

18 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

57 bits: Data Bits
26 bits: Training Sequence
1bit: Stealing flag
3 bit: Tail bit
8.25: Guard period

Stage- VI: Ciphering/Encryption

The purpose of ciphering is to include the burst so that it cannot be interpreted by any other device
than the intended receiver. The ciphering algorithm in GSM is called the A5 algorithm.

Stage- VII: Burst formatting:

Combines the various burst signals into one format and generates the signal for transmission.

Stage- VIII: Modulation and Transmission: The bits must be sent over the air using a carrier
frequency.GSM uses GMSK Modulation technique. The bits are modulated into a carrier frequency
and transmitted.

 Mobility Management

• Mobility management is one of the major functions of a GSM that allows mobile phones to
work.
• The aim of mobility management is
1. to track the location of the subscribers
2. To allow calls, SMS and other mobile phone services to be delivered to them.
Functions of MM

• Registration-
o Informs network which device is used and that it is ready to receive request
o Normally combined with authentication
• Paging
o In power saving mode only the area a device is located in is known by the network

19 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

 o Paging is used to find the cell a device is located in.
• Location Update
o Informs the network of new location of the device
• Handover
o Keeps the link while moving by switching the link from one access point to another.
• Rerouting
o Optimizes the traffic path by redefining routes after handover

 Roaming

Roaming is the ability for a customer of mobile communications to automatically make and receive
telephone calls, send and receive data, or access other services while travelling outside the
geographical coverage area of the home network, by means of using a network of another operator

Concept of Roaming :

1) Roaming is one of the basic mobility

management processes in all cellular
networks.
2) Roaming is defined as the capability
of a cellular customer to make and
receive voice calls automatically,
send and receive data, or to access
other services containing home data
services, while travelling outside the
geographical coverage area of the
home network, by means of using a
visited network.
3) Roaming can be done by using a
communication terminal or by using
the subscriber identity in the visited
network.
4) Technically Roaming is supported by mobility management, authorization, authentication
and billing procedures.

 Roaming Services

5 Most common domains of roaming services are:

1) Calling: Roaming service allows one to make calls and receive calls from anywhere. This
includes the home country, the present country or any other country.
2) Messaging: Similar to voice, SMS roaming services include sending and receiving text
messages to and from the home country, the present country and any third country.
3) Emails: Roaming services include receiving and replying or forwarding any email while
abroad.
4) Mobile Data: Roaming services enable data accessing through mobile devices or any other
device. The service includes downloading files, uploading files when travelling abroad.
5) Mobile Applications: Global roaming services extend to mobile applications or apps that
utilize mobile data for operating. Many mobile applications are useful while travelling
internationally.
6)

20 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

  Identifiers used in GSM:

Following are the identifiers used in GSM.

MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN Number):
It is an authentic telephone number of the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card displayed on
mobile or cellular phones.
A MSISDN is a subscription in the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) or
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) networks.
Based on the SIM card, a mobile station can have many MSISDNS. Each subscriber is assigned
with a separate MSISDN to their SIM.

IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity) :

IMEI is a 15 or 17-digit code that uniquely identifies mobile handsets.
The International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI) is similar to a serial number which
distinctively identifies a mobile station internationally.
This is allocated by the device manufacturer and registered by the network operator.By using IMEI
number one can recognize outdated, stolen, or non-functional equipment.

IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) :

It uniquely identifies the MS. It is used as the key to search any data in the databases from VLR,
HLR and GSN.
IMSI is usually fifteen digit unique number. Every registered user has an original International
Mobile Subscriber Identity IMSI with a valid IMEI

MSIN (Mobile Subscriber Identification Number):

It is an identification number of the subscriber in the home network.

MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number):

Mobile Station Roaming Number MSRN is an temporary location dependent ISDN number,
assigned to a mobile station by a regionally responsible Visitor Location Register VLR. Using
MSRN, the incoming calls are channeled to the MS.

LAI (Location Area Identity) :

Within a PLMN, a Location Area identifies its own authentic Location Area Identity LAI. The LAI
hierarchy is based on international standard.

 Call Processing in GSM / Typical Call Flow Sequences in GSM:

In this section we will discuss the following call flow sequences related to GSM:

1. Registration / Location updating

2. Mobile terminated call

3. Mobile originated call

1.Location Updating :
In order to receive the incoming calls from a mobile station that moves within and outside the
service area, the home network should somehow keep a track of the location of all the active mobile
stations.

21 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

The location updating feature is activated when a mobile station either moves to another MSC or
tries to access the network and is not registered in the VLR of that location.

Each service area consists of many adjacent cells recognized by location area identities (LAI).

The mobile station (MS) generally has the information from the neighbouring base stations and if it
sees that a subscriber has moved to a new location then it initiates the sequence as shown in Fig.
Location Updating Procedure:

Step 1: When a new location is identified, the mobile station (MS) sends a request for location
update to the new VLR via the BSC and MSC.
Step 2: The location update message is sent to the HLR from the VLR. This message consists of the
address of the VLR (new) and the IMSI of the MS.
Step 3: The security and service related information for the MS is transferred to the new VLR.
Step 4: An acknowledgement message is sent to the mobile station as soon as the location update is
done successfully.
Step 5: The HLR instructs the old VLR to delete all the information related to the relocated MS

Mobile Originated Call:

This type of call is originated by a mobile subscriber and it is meant for a landline user.

First the calling mobile subscriber enters the phone number to be called on the mobile and presses
the send key.

22 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

Then the mobile station connects the correct signalling links to the BSC.

After that the call is processed by following the steps shown in Fig

Step 1: The mobile station passes on the dialled number to the MSC via BSC to indicate that it
needs service.
Step 2: The VLR tells the MSC if the mobile station can access the requested service or not. If the
MS can access the requested service, then the MSC instructs the BSC to assign the resources
required for the call.
Step 3: The allowed call is then routed to GMSC via MSC.
Step 4: The GMSC then routes the call to the Local
Step 5: Exchange (LE) of called landline subscriber. The LE then gives a ring on the called landline
terminal.
Step 6: The landline terminal returns an answer back tone to the LE.
Step 7:The answer back tone is sent back to the Mobile Station thus completing the call.

 Hand Off (Hand Over) in GSM:

1) Assume that there is a call going on between two parties over a voice channel.

2) When the mobile unit moves out of the coverage area of a particular cell site, the reception
becomes weak. Then the present cell site will request a handover.

3) The system will switch the call to a new cell site without interrupting the call. This
procedure is called the handover procedure or handover procedure.

4) The user can continue talking without even noticing that the handover procedure has taken
place.

The advantage of handover procedure is increase in the effectiveness of the mobile system.

Refer Fig to understand the handover procedure clearly. Fig. BELOW shows two co-channel cells
separated by a distance D and using the frequency f₁.

Other cells such as C₁, C₂, C3, C4, C5 etc. exist in-between the two co-channel using frequency f₁.

The cells C₁, C₂, C3 and C4 use different frequencies f₁, fz f3, f4, etc. as shown in Fig.

Suppose a mobile unit initiates a call in cell C, and then moves to cell C₂. Then as it starts going
away from C₁, the call is dropped and reinitiated in the frequency channel from f₁ to f₂ when the
mobile unit (such as car) moves form C₁ to C₂

Similarly when the mobile unit moves from cell C₂ to C₂ the frequency is changed automatically
from f₂ to f3 as shown in Fig.

The process of changing the frequency is done automatically by the system and the user does not
even notice it.

23 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

It is important to process handovers in any cellular system. In many handover strategies, higher
priority is given to the handover request than the call initiation request.

Handovers should be performed successfully and they should not be repeated frequently.

So as to satisfy these requirements, system designers should decide and specify an optimum signal
level at which the handover should be initiated.

Fig. below illustrates handover diagrammatically. First a minimum signal level for maintaining the
call is decided. Then a slightly stronger signal level is used as the handover threshold. The
handover will be made at this signal level.

The margin between these two levels is denoted by A and given by,
A = Pr handover - Pr minimum usable

Note the choice of the value of A is critical. A cannot be too small and it cannot be too large as
well.

If A is too large, then unnecessary handovers will take place and if A is too small, there won't be
sufficient time to complete the handover and the call may lost due to weak signal
Improper Handover:

Refer Fig (a) which illustrates the improper handover situation i.e. handover is not made and signal
drops below the minimum signal level. The call is terminated.

In Fig. (b), the handover has taken place as soon as the received signal level drops to the handover
threshold. Note the increase in the signal level at point Y after handover

Before initiating the handover, it is necessary to ensure that the reduction in the measured signal
level is not due to the momentary signal fading and that the drop in signal level is due to the actual
movement of the mobile station.

24 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

  Different Types of Handover :
Following are various types of handovers

1. Hard handover

2.Soft handover

3. Queued handover

4. Delayed handover

5. Forced handover

1. Hard handover :

The handover is known as hard handover if a mobile station transmits between two base stations
operating on different frequencies.

2. Soft handover :

The handover is known as soft handover if the MS starts communication with a new base station
without stopping the communication with the older base station.

In a soft handover the operating frequencies of the old and new base stations are identical.

Soft handover enhances the signal by providing different-site selection diversity.

25 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

If the handover takes place within the same cell then it is known as softer handover.

3. Delayed handover:

In many situations, instead of one level, a two level handover procedure is followed, in order to
ensure a higher possibility of a successful handover. A handover can be delayed if no available cell
could accept the call.

Fig. shows a graph of signal strength with two handover levels.

When the signal level drops below the first handover level, the MS initiates a handover request. If
due to some reason the mobile unit is in a hole (Place in a cell with low signal level) or
neighbouring cell is busy then the MS will repeat the handover request after every 5 seconds.

Received signal strength

Two handover levels L₂ Minimum signal level Time (G-1415) Fig. A two level handover scheme

But if the signal strength drops down further and reaches the second handover level (L₂) then the
handover will take place without any condition, immediately.

This process is called as delayed handover.

3. Forced handover:

A forced handover is defined as the handover which would normally occur but is not allowed to
happen by force or a handover that should not occur but is forced to take place.
Queued handover:

In the queued handover process, the MTSO arranges the handover requests in a queue instead of
rejecting them, if it finds that new cell sites are too busy to makes the handover possible.

These handover requests are then acted upon in a sequential manner. Queuing of handovers is more
effective than the two threshold handover. Also, a queuing scheme is effective only when the
handover requests arrive at the MTSO in the form of batches or bundles

---------------******END*******-------------------

26 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

FIRST GENERATION (1G)

1G (or 1-G) is short for first-generation wireless telephone technology, cellphones. These are the
analog cell phones standards that were introduced in the 1980s and continued until being replaced
by 2G digital cell phones. The main difference between two succeeding mobile telephone systems
1G and 2G is that, the radio signals that IG networks use are analog, while 2G networks are digital.
Although both systems use digital signaling to connect the radio towers (which listen to the
handsets) to the rest of the telephone system, the call itself is encoded to digital signals in 2G
whereas IG is only modulated to higher frequency, typically 150MHz and up.

SECOND GENERATION (2G)

2G is short for second generation wireless telephone technology. The main differentiator to
previous mobile telephone systems, retrospectively dubbed 1G networks use are analog, while 2G
networks are digital Note that both systems used digital signaling to connect the radio towers(which
listen to the handset) the rest of the telephone systems.

Channels:

An important factor in determining the capacity of a mobile system is the channel. A channel is a
frequency or a set of frequencies which can be allocated for the transmission and reception of
information. Communication channels of any form can be one of the following types.
One way only
Two way,
Simplex
Half Duplex one once at time
Full Duplex Two way both at the same time

Abbreviations

MSC : Mobile switching center

BSC : Base station controller Base transceiver station
BTS :TRX : Transceiver.
MS :Mobile station
OMC : Operations and Maintenance centre.
PSTN: Public switched telephone network.
BSS : Base station sub-system.
HLR : Home location register
VLR : Visitor location register
AUC :Authentication centre
EIR: Equipment Identity Register

27 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

1. What is Mobile communication?
a) Allows to communicate from different locations without the use of physical medium
b) Allows to communicate from different locations with the use of physical medium
c) Allows to communicate from same locations without the use of physical medium
d) Allows to communicate from same locations with the use of physical medium
2. What is wireless communication?
a) Sending data from one location to with the use of physical medium
b) Sending data from one location to another without the use of physical medium
c) Sending data from one location to another without the use of virtual medium
d) None of the mentioned
3. 3. Which of the following is a type of wireless communication?
a) LAN
b) WAN
c) PAN
d) All of the mentioned
4. 4. Which of the following is not an example of wireless communication?
a) Wi-Fi
b) Mobiles
c) Landline
d) Wireless Computer Parts
5. Why wireless communication is used?
a) It enables billions of people to connect to the Internet
b) Lowers the cost of network infrastructure
c) Makes services more inexpensive
d) All of the mentioned
6. Which of the following is the drawback for cordless telephones?
a) Security
b) Wireless technology
c) Limited coverage area
d) Mobile
7. Which of the following is not a TDMA standard of 2.5G network?
a) GPRS
b) GSM
c) HSCSD
d) EDGE
8. Mobile communication network is also called as ______ network.

Cellular network

Mobile network
2G network
Both a and b
9.
. _______ technology is used for communicating over large distances wirelessly.

28 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

 Mobile communication

Land communication

Communication

All the above

Which of the following are not used in mobile communication?

Wires

Cables

Wired antenna

All the above

A mobile phone uses ______ type of duplex communication.

Half

Full

Zero

Both a and b
A full-duplex communication is _______ way communication.

Single

Two

Multiple

All the above

Which of the following are the features of mobile communication?

High load balancing capacity

Highly scalable

Good network management system

All the above

Which of the following are the examples of mobile communication systems?

Cellular phones

Cordless phones

Wired phones

Both a and b
Do mobile telephones permit communication at a time?

29 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes

Yes

No

Maybe

30 Wireless and Mobile Network Notes