DNA and RNA

NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are called as such because they were first discovered in the nucleus
They are complex organic acids that are composed of chains of nucleotide units

Functions of Nucleotides:
They participate in the energy transduction that accompany interconversions and
oxidative phosphorylations
o ATP & ADP as the donor and acceptor of phosphoric group
Roles in biochemical processes: in energy metabolism, protein synthesis, &
regulation of enzyme activity
When linked to vitamin derivative, such as NAD and FAD, they are considered as
coenzymes
As biosynthetic intermediates: linked to sugars & lipids
o UDP-glucose & UDP-galactose
o CDP-acylglycerol
Allosteric regulation of enzymes: ATP, ADP, AMP, and CTP
As secondary messengers: cAMP and cGMP
In signal transduction pathways: GTP and GDP
Medical Application:
Used as synthetic purine & pyrimidine analogs
o As immunosuppressors in organ transplantation
o Chemotherapy
o Treatment of AIDS

Most important Function of Nucleotide: as constituents of nucleic

acid
o Nucleic acid is the molecular storage of the genetic information
which allows living cells to produces replicas of themselves
Nucleotides Are the Monomeric Units of Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acids offers a three-dimensional perspective on
nucleotide structure, base pairing, and other aspects of DNA and RNA structure

Polymeric Structure of Nucleic Acids.

A nucleotide :Nucleotides have three

characteristic components:
(1) a nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing)
base, (2) a pentose,
and (3) a phosphate
 Sugars of Nucleotide: Ribose and Deoxyribose

Backbones of DNA and RNA. The backbones of these nucleic acids are formed by 3 -to-5
phosphodiester linkages. A sugar unit is highlighted in red and a phosphate group in blue
Purines and Pyrimidines. Atoms within bases are numbered without primes. Uracil
instead of thymine is used in RNA.
 Components of DNA and RNA
DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotide units
Monomeric units are called Nucleotide
Structure of Nucleotide
Nucleotides are monomeric units of
DNA molecule
Composed of a nitrogenous base, sugar,
and phosphate
o Base: Nitrogenous base contains
Nitrogen
o Sugar: Dexoyribose (DNA) or Ribose
(RNA)
o Phosphate Reason why the DNA is
negatively charged

Nitrogenous base is linked to the Carbon

1’ of the sugar
Phosphate group is linked to the Carbon
5’ of the sugar
If we have a chain of nucleotides we will
form nucleic acid
 β -Glycosidic linkage in a nucleoside

The glycosidic linkage between sugars 1 and 2 is β because the bond is

directed up from the anomeric carbon. The glycosidic linkage between
sugars 2 and 3 is α because the bond is directed down from the anomeric
carbon.
Anomeric carbon:
Cyclic monosaccharides or glycosides that are anomers are
epimers and differ from one another by the configuration of C-1
if they are aldoses or C-2 if they are ketoses.

Anomeric carbon is a term used to describe the epimeric carbon

in anomers.

The cyclic structure exists in two different configurational forms.

If the hydroxyl on the anomeric carbon is below the plane of the
ring, it is said to be in the alpha position, if above the plane of
the ring, it is in the beta position.

In glucose, the C-1 carbon atom is called the anomeric carbon

atom, and the alpha and beta forms are called anomers.
 PENTOSE SUGAR:
It is a 5 carbon sugar or a pentose sugar
As you can see from the picture above, the carbon atoms in the sugar
is being identified by a primed number (ex. carbon 19), it just tells us
that the primed number carbon belongs to the sugar of a nucleotide
There are 2 kinds of sugar: Deoxyribose and Ribose

Difference of Deoxyribose from

Ribose occurs at Carbon 2’
Ribose: has –OH group
Deoxyribose: has –H atom only
DEOXYribose = no OXYGEN
In nucleotides, both types of pentoses
are in their -furanose (closed five-
membered ring) form. As the figure shows,
the pentose ring is not planar
but occurs in one of a variety of
conformations generally
described as “puckered.”

Sugar Puckering: describes the differences

in phosphorus base distance; displacement
of the 2’, 3’-carbons above the
plane of the C1’-O4’-C4’ atoms
C3’-endo pucker in RNA and A-form DNA;
produces a significantly shorter phosphate-
phosphate distance in the backbone,
resulting in a more compact helical
conformation
C2’-endo pucker in B-form DNA; more
stable conformation
than C3’-endo or A-form
Heterocyclic Ring = In the ring, aside from Carbon and Hydrogen, you also have
Nitrogen (Methyl group)
Classified into 2 Types:
1. Purine = Adenine, Guanine
2. Pyrimidine = Cytosine, Thymine (DNA), Uracil (RNA)

Chemical Names of Purines:

Adenine = 6-aminopurine. On the 6th carbon atom of purine, you have the amino
group
Guanine = 2-amino, 6-oxypurine . You have an amino group on the
2nd carbon, and an oxygen on the 6th carbon
Chemical Names of Pyrimidines:
Cytosine = 2-oxy,4-aminopyrimidine. You have an oxygen on the 2nd
carbon and an amino group on the 4th carbon
Uracil = 2,4-dioxypyrimidine. You have 2 oxygen located on the 2nd
and 4th carbon
Thymine = 2,4-dioxy,5-methylpyrimidine. Same as uracil, you have
2 oxygen located on the 2nd and 4th carbon, but this time you have
a methyl group (nitrogen-containing) on the 5th carbon
 Nucleoside & Nucleotide
A Nucleoside contains only a base and a sugar
When you phosphorylate a nucleoside becomes a Nucleotide
Contains a base, sugar, and a phosphate

Base Contains Nitrogen

Phosphate Group Contains Phosphate
Sugar :Sugar (Ribose or Deoxyribose)
If the C2’ has an OH, it is Ribose and if
there is no oxygen, it is Deoxyribose
The linkage between the sugar and the
base is called the Glycosidic Bond
The linkage between the sugar and the
phosphate is called the Phosphoester
Bond
Nucleosides
To convert the base into a nucleoside. You add the purine or pyrimidine base with a
sugar (base + sugar). The linkage is glycosidic bond
For Purines : The connection is between N9 of an Purines and C1 of Sugar
For Pyrimidine: The connection is between N1 of Pyrimidine d C1 of Sugar
o Purines = N9-C1 glycosidic bond
o Pyrimidine = N1-C1 glycosidic bond
o Addition of pentose sugar to a base produces a nucleoside
Adenine Adenosine
Guanine Guanosine
Cytosine Cytidine
Thymine Thymidine
Uracil Uridine
 Bases of nucleosides has 2 conformations:
1. Syn conformation
2. Anti conformation

Take note that the Anti conformation is generally favored in all

naturally occurring nucleosides because it is more stable
NOMENCLATURE OF NUCLEOTIDES
DNA
Structure of Nucleic Acids
Nucleic Acid Structure
The discovery of the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick in 1953 was a
momentous event in science, an event that gave rise to entirely new disciplines
and influenced the course of many established ones. Our present understanding
of the storage and utilization of a cell’s genetic information is based on work
made possible by this discovery, and an outline of how genetic information is
processed by the cell is now a prerequisite for the discussion of any area of
biochemistry.
The discovery of DNA took decades of work by individual scientists and research
teams, each working on a different part of the puzzle. Frederick Griffith In 1928,
Frederick Griffith became the first to report the transformation of non-pathogenic
(rough) Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria into pathogenic (smooth) bacteria
when live rough population was exposed to an extract of dead, boiled smooth
Streptococcus.
 PRIMARY STRUCTURE
Refers to the nucleotide sequence
o Involving a chain of alternating sugar-phosphate chain
(backbone) with a base group attached to the chain

The successive nucleotides of both DNA and RNA are covalently linked through phosphate-
group “bridges,” in which the 5-phosphate group of one nucleotide unit is joined to the 3-
hydroxyl group of the next nucleotide, creating a phosphodiester linkage
A nucleotide is a nucleoside joined to one or more phosphate groups by an
ester linkage. The most common site of esterification in naturally
occurring nucleotides is the hydroxyl group attached to C-5 of the sugar. A
compound formed by the attachment of a phosphate group to the C-5 of a
nucleoside sugar is called a nucleoside 5 -phosphate or a 5 -nucleotide. For
example, ATP is adenosine 5 -triphosphate. Another nucleotide is
deoxyguanosine 3 -monophosphate
Nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester bonds (on 3’-5’):
o There is a phosphoester bond to the 5’ carbon of one sugar unit and another
phosphoester bond to the 3’ carbon of the other sugar
o The 5’-end carries a free phosphate group attached to the 5’ carbon atom
o The other end of the chain, 3’-end has a free hydroxyl group attached to the
3’ carbon atom
o By convention, the sequence of bases of a nucleic acid strand is read from 5’-
end to the 3’-end
 Nucleic Acid Structure
Polymerization

P P P P P P
N N
C C
S Phosphodiesterase S

+
P
N
P P
C
(PPi)
S
P P P
N
C
S
Francis Crick and James Watson In 1953, James Watson and Francis
Crick published a two-page paper that is arguably the most famous scientific
publication ever printed. They used Franklin's data (not entirely with her consent) and
cut-out cardboard replicas of DNA components. Late in the night, the double-helix
was discovered
Notice that the molecule is NOT bilaterally symmetrical (i.e., the two halves of the
double helix are not mirror images of each other). Rather, the two strands run
antiparallel, with the 5' end of one strand opposite the 3' end of the other
Hydrogen-bonding patterns in the base pairs defined
by Watson and Crick.
SECONDARY STRUCTURE:
Refers to the DNA double helix
Composed of two strands polynucleotides wound around each other which
forms HELIX (Right Handed Double Helix)
o Bases are sandwiched on the inside, while the sugarphosphate backbone
are on the outside
Sequence of the bases is important since they determine the genetic
information of the molecule

BASE STACKING
Bases in DNA are planar and have the ability to stack
Major stacking forces: Hydrophobic interaction & van der Waals forces

Rosalind Frank & Maurice Wilkins

o Saw double helix using X-ray diffraction, primary one measuring 3.4 Å &
secondary one is 34 Å
Bases are separated by 3.4 Å along the axis, and each base is rotated 36
degree in relation to the previous base
The helical structure repeats at intervals of 34 Å (every 10 base pairs)
Watson-Crick B-Form DNA (1953):
o DNA contained long polymeric chains
o DNA contained deoxyribonucleosides in 5’-3’ phosphodiester linkage
o X-ray diffraction suggested a helical structure

As described by Mr. Watson and Crick:

DNA is composed of two polynucleotides, anti-parallel with each other
(One strand runs from 5’ to 3’, while the other strand runs from 3’ to 5’) =
Opposite Direction
On the outside = Sugar-phosphate backbone
On the inside = Hydrophobic bases
The two strands are connected by Hydrogen Bonding between
base pairs (Watson-Crick Base Pairs):
o Adenine – Thymine = 2 Hydrogen Bonds
o Cytosine – Guanine = 3 Hydrogen Bonds
Sugar-phosphate backbone:
o Major groove – where the
backbones are far apart
o Minor groove – where they
are close together
o Grooves twist around the
molecule on opposite sides
o Certain proteins bind to
DNA to alter its structure or
to regulate transcription or
replication
• In DNA there are two strands of
nucleotides that wind together in a
double helix
- the strands run in opposite directions
- the bases are arranged in step-like
pairs
- the base pairs are held together by
hydrogen bonding
• The pairing of the bases from the two
strands is very specific
• The complimentary base pairs are A-T
and G-C
- two hydrogen bonds form between A
and T
- three hydrogen bonds form between
G and C
• Each pair consists of a purine and a
pyrimidine, so they are the same
width, keeping the two strands at
equal distances from each other
CHARGAFF’s RULE
1. The base composition of DNA generally varies from one species to
another
2. DNA specimens isolated from different tissues of the same species have
the same base composition.
3. The base composition of DNA in a given species does not change with an
organism’s age, nutritional status or changing environment.
4. In all cellular DNAs, regardless of the species, the number of A=T and C=G.
The sum of the purine residues equals the sum of pyrimidine residues (A +
G = T + C)
 DENATURATION OF DNA Cleavage of the HYDROGEN
bonds Double stranded DNA becomes single-stranded
.The double helix is disrupted during DNA:
o Replication
oTranscription
o Repair
O Recombination
Therefore the forces that hold the two strands together
are adequate for providing stability and yet weak
enough to allow easy strand separation
DISSOCIATION, MELTING or UNWINDING
DISSOCIATION AND REASSOCIATION OF THE DOUBLE HELICAL CHAINS OF
DNA
Double helical chains of DNA have a remarkable ability to dissociate from one
another and to reassociate again. This behavior is essential to the processes of
REPLICATION and TRANSCRIPTION

DENATURATION
Rupture of the hydrogen bonds between the bases, resulting from increasing
temperature or the alteration of the H+ concentration, which causes the two
strands to come apart
FACTORS THAT MAY LEAD TO RUPTURE OF H BONDS:
1. Increasing pH
↑pH ….deprotonates ring nitrogens of guanine and thymine
↓pH ….protonates ring nitrogens of adenine and cytosine
2. Increasing acidity
Can cause rupture of purine glycosidic bonds, and at high temperatures
phosphodiester bonds may be broken.
ALKALINIZATION : favors denaturation
Because OH is needed to disrupt the H bonds
3. Increasing temperature
The double helical chain dissociates at a definite temp.
MELTING TEMPERATURE (TM) is the temp. at which 50% of the double helix is
unwound
o Melting causes “unstacking of the base pairs” ↑absorbance
(HYPERCHROMIC EFFECT)
o strongly influenced by the base composition of the DNA
DNA rich GC pairs has a HIGHER Tm than DNA with a higher proportion of AT pairs
↑AT.. ↓Tm
↑GC.. ↑Tm
Mammalian DNA, which is about 40% GC pairs has a Tm of about 87°C
RENATURATION (ANNEALING)
If the temperature of melted
(dissociated)duplex DNA is rapidly reduced,
the original double helical structure does NOT
reform (anneal)
If, however, the temp. is held at a value of
about 20°C to 25°C below the Tm, the
original double helical structure reforms.
o 87°C - 20°C = around 67°C

In denaturation, there is hyperchromic effect. It refers

to the use of a spectrophotometer.
BASES
The part of the nucleotide which will absorb light in the
spectrophotometer is the base.
In a double stranded DNA, the bases are hidden within and it cannot
absorb light.
But once it is SEPARATED, the bases are now exposed and there will
be absorption of light HIGHER ABSORBANCE
B FORM
Watson-Crick structure
Is the most stable structure for a random sequence DNA molecule under
physiological conditions
It is a Right-handed double helix
Is the standard point of reference in any study of the properties of DNA. B-DNA is
the Watson–Crick form of the double helix that most people are familiar with.
They proposed two strands of DNA — each in a right-hand helix — wound around
the same axis. The two strands are held together by H-bonding between the bases
(in anti-conformation).
The two strands of the duplex are antiparallel and plectonemically coiled. The
nucleotides arrayed in a 5′ to 3′ orientation on one strand align with complementary
nucleotides in the 3′ to 5′ orientation of the opposite strand.
Bases fit in the double helical model if pyrimidine on one strand is always paired
with purine on the other. From Chargaff’s rules, the two strands will pair A with T
and G with C. This pairs a keto base with an amino base, a purine with a pyrimidine.
Two H-bonds can form between A and T, and three can form between G and C.
These are the complementary base pairs. The base-pairing scheme immediately
suggests a way to replicate and copy the genetic information.
34 nm between bp, 3.4 nm per turn, about 10 bp per turn
9 nm (about 2.0 nm or 20 Angstroms) in diameter.
34o helix pitch; -6o base-pair tilt; 36o twist angle
A FORM
Is favored in many solutions that are relatively devoid of water
DNA assumes during dehydration or in RNA-DNA hybrid helices
Right-handed double helix, but the helix is wider (due to dehydration)
The base pairs are closer together along the helical axis; 2.55 Å center-to-center
distance
The helical pitch (number of base pairs per helical turn) is 11 base pairs (10.5 as in
B form DNA) per turn in 28 Å (34 Å in B form DNA)
A-form is 25% shorter than the B-form (DNA shrinks when it dries)
The plane of the base pairs is not perpendicular to the helical axis but
is tilted at a steep angle of about 20° with respect to the helix axis
Deepens the major groove while making the minor groove shallower
More information about A-form DNA

The major difference between A-form and B-form nucleic acid is in the
confirmation of the deoxyribose sugar ring. It is in the C2′ endo conformation for
B-form, whereas it is in the C3′ endo conformation in A-form.
A second major difference between A-form and B-form nucleic acid is the
placement of base-pairs within the duplex. In B-form, the base-pairs are almost
centered over the helical axis but in A-form, they are displaced away from the
central axis and closer to the major groove. The result is a ribbon-like helix with
a more open cylindrical core in A-form.
Right-handed helix
11 bp per turn; 0.26 nm axial rise; 28o helix pitch; 20o base-pair tilt
33o twist angle; 2.3nm helix diameter
Z-form DNA
Z-DNA is a radically different duplex structure, with the two strands coiling in left-
handed helices and a pronounced zig-zag (hence the name) pattern in the
phosphodiester backbone.
Z-DNA can form when the DNA is in an alternating purine-pyrimidine sequence such
as GCGCGC, and indeed the G and C nucleotides are in different conformations,
leading to the zig-zag pattern.
The big difference is at the G nucleotide.
It has the sugar in the C3′ endoconformation (like A-form nucleic acid, and in contrast
to B-form DNA) and the guanine base is in the synconformation.
This places the guanine back over the sugar ring, in contrast to the usual
anticonformation seen in A- and B-form nucleic acid. Note that having the base in the
anticonformation places it in the position where it can readily form H-bonds with the
complementary base on the opposite strand.
The duplex in Z-DNA has to accommodate the distortion of this G nucleotide in the
synconformation. The cytosine in the adjacent nucleotide of Z-DNA is in the “normal”
C2′ endo, anticonformation.
Discovered by Rich, Nordheim &Wang in 1984.
It has antiparallel strands as B-DNA.
It is long and thin as compared to B-DNA.
12 bp per turn; 0.45 nm axial rise; 45o helix pitch; 7o base-pair tilt
-30o twist angle; 1.8 nm helix diameter
Z FORM
Radical departure from B-DNA
Left-handed helical rotation
Single groove rather than two
Nucleotides along one strand alternate between the syn and anti conformation
o Guanosines are all in the syn conformation while the Cytidines are all in the anti
conformation like the B form
Sequences in which pyrimidines alternate with purines: alternating C and G or 5-
methyl-C and G residues
DNA backbone takes on a zigzag appearance
There are 12 base pairs per helical turn
Structure is slender and elongated
Conditions Favoring A-form, B-form, and Z-form of DNA
Whether a DNA sequence will be in the A-, B-or Z-DNA conformation
depends on at least three conditions.
The first is the ionic or hydration environment, which can facilitate
conversion between different helical forms.
A-DNA is favored by low hydration, whereas Z-DNA can be favored by high
salt.
The second condition is the DNA sequence: A-DNA is favored by certain
stretches of purines (or pyrimidines), whereas Z-DNA can be most readily
formed by alternating purine-pyrimidine steps.
The third condition is the presence of proteins that can bind to DNA in one
helical conformation and force the DNA to adopt a different conformation,
such as proteins which bind to B-DNA and can drive it to either A-or Z
forms.
In living cells, most of the DNA is in a mixture of A and B-DNA
conformations, with a few small regions capable of forming Z-DNA.
EUKARYOTIC DNA:
1. DNA is packaged into unit structure called Chromosomes
2. Combined with proteins called Chromatin. Chromatin contains
about equal amounts (by weight) of DNA and proteins
3. DNA is associated with basic proteins called histones and with
non-histones chromosomal proteins. These are non-covalent Associations

CHROMOSOME
Refer to a nucleic acid molecule that is the repository of genetic
information in a virus, bacterium, eukaryotic cell or organelle
Packaging of chromosomes:
o When DNA is underwound it twists to the right to relieve
strain and negative supercoiling results
Winds around itself to form an interwound supercoil
o When DNA is overwound it twists to the left to relieve strains and positive
supercoiling results
Where DNA coils around a protein core to form a toroidal supercoil
DNA replicates in S phase of interphase with each chromosome producing 2
sister chromosome called chromatids
Become more condensed during prophase of mitosis
CHROMATINS
Consists of very long dsDNA (double-stranded DNA) molecules, nearly equal mass of
histones, a smaller amount of non-histone proteins and a small quantity of RNA
Non-histone proteins:
o Acidic and larger than histones
o Involved in DNA replication and repair
o Involved in RNA synthesis, processing, and transport to the cytoplasm
NUCLEOSOMES
Chromatin is tightly associated with histones
o Histones are small basic proteins rich in Arg and Lys
o Not present in prokaryotes
o Proteins that package and condenses the DNA
o Also participates in gene regulation
o Core histones: H2A, H2B, H3 and H4
o Histone H1:
Least tightly bound to chromatin
Is complexed with the DNA that joins one nucleosome core with another
The organization of the DNA around each histone core results from electrostatic
interactions between the arginine residues of the core histones and the
phosphodiester backbone of DNA
o Approximately 140 bp are in contact with each histone octamer
o An additional 60 bp of spacer (or linker) DNA connect adjacent nucleosomes
Chromosomal Organization
If the DNA of all 46 chromosomes were lined up in the B-DNA conformation it
would be more than 2 meters long

DNA needs to fit within a cell nucleus with a diameter of approximately 5 μm

o Possible because of proper packaging
of DNA with the aid of HISTONES
Packaging of DNA
- Beads-on-a-string: DNA association
with histones
- 10 nm fiber
- 30 nm fiber (solenoid)
Supercoiling in prokaryotic DNA o Positive supercoils and Negative supercoils

Supercoiling in Eukaryotic DNA

o Formation of chromatin
Electrostatic attraction between the (-) charged phosphate groups on
the DNA and the (+) chargedgroups on the protein (histone)
RNA
RNA is a polymer of ribonucleotides linked together by phosphodiester linkage.
RNA was first genetic material.
In 1967 Carl Woese found the catalytic properties of RNA and speculated that the
earliest forms of life relied on RNA both to carry genetic information and to
catalyse biochemical reactions.
Their theories were not validated until the work of Nobel Prize laureate Thomas R.
Cech. In the 1970s, Cech was studying the splicing of RNA in a single-celled
organism, Tetrahymena thermophila, when he discovered that an unprocessed
RNA molecule could splice itself. He announced his discovery in 1982 and became
the first to show that RNA has catalytic functions.
Usually single stranded and helical in structure.
But double stranded also present in some viruses. RNA exists in several different
single-stranded structures, most of which are directly or indirectly involved in
protein synthesis or its regulation.
It also acts as the genetic material in some viruses.
It function as messenger(mRNA), adapter(tRNA), structural(rRNA) and in some
cases as a catalytic molecule(Ribozyme).
RNA strands are typically several hundred to several thousand
nucleotides in length.
dsRNA Structure
There are double-stranded RNA structures
RNA can fold back on itself
Depends on base sequence
Gives stem (double-strand) and loop (single-strand structures)
ds RNA has an bulge loop conformation
Steric clashes between 2’-OH groups prevent the internal loop like
conformation
Double helical characteristics of RNA

•Stem and loop structure

•Internal loops
•Bulges
•Junctions
•Pseudoknots
•Stem loop with the tetraloop sequence UUCG is exceptionally
stable due to base stacking interactions in the loop
•Shows additional non watson-Crick base pairing (eg: G:U base
pairing, GA and GU base pairing commonly found in rRNA). It
enhances capacity for self complementarity
•RNA secondary structure can have important biological
function
Types of RNA

In all prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, three main

classes of RNA molecules exist-

1) Messenger RNA(m RNA)

2) Transfer RNA (t RNA)
3) Ribosomal RNA (r RNA)

The other are –

small nuclear RNA (SnRNA),
micro RNA(mi RNA) and
small interfering RNA(Si RNA) and
heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA).
 In 1961, French scientists François Jacob and Jacques
Monod hypothesized the existence of an intermediary
between DNA and its protein products, which they
called messenger RNA

mRNA
•Messenger RNA (mRNA) mRNA molecules contain the coding
sequence for proteins. The mRNA molecules can vary
considerably in size, with eukaryotic transcripts including the
largest known ribonucleic acids. This is most obvious before
splicing of introns, because many transcripts exceed 100 kb in
length
rRNA
•Ribosomal RNA molecules comprise 65 to 70% of the
mass of the ribosome
•Made in the nucleolus
•In the cytoplasm, rRNA and ribosomes combine to form
nucleoprotein called ribosome
•The rRNA ensures the proper alignment of the mRNA,
tRNA, and the ribosomes; the rRNA of the ribosome also
has an enzymatic activity (peptidyl transferase) and
catalyzes the formation of the peptide bonds between two
aligned amino acids during protein synthesis.
Ribozymes
•RNA can be biological catalysts and can have complex
tertiary structures like enzymes and can have other
classical features of enzyme like active site, binding
site for cofactors etc. called ribozymes. Eg:
–RNaseP - one of the first Ribozyme to be discovered,
involved in generating tRNA molecules from larger
precursor RNA
–hammerhead -sequence specific ribonuclease
•Regulatory RNA (riboswitches) bind and respond to
small molecules- ligands and control transcription and
translation steps.