Biology Notes

Chapter 6:
Photosynthesis is a metabolic reaction occurring in plants in which light energy
converts raw materials into carbohydrates such as glucose. Photosynthesis
occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells.
Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll, which is a green pigment which transfers light
energy into chemical energy to make carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates which are made in photosynthesis can be stored in plants and can
be used for:
● starch as an energy store
● cellulose to build cell walls
● glucose used in respiration to provide energy
● sucrose for transport in the phloem
● nectar to attract insects for pollination Word equations for photosynthesis:
carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen (in the presence of light and
chlorophyll)
Chemical equations for photosynthesis:

Factors affecting rate of photosynthesis: The rate of photosynthesis is limited by

the limiting factor. This is the factor which is least available to the plant. For
example, at night, light intensity is very low hence the rate of photosynthesis is
also very low, regardless of the carbon dioxide concentration and temperature.
● Carbon dioxide concentration - as carbon dioxide concentration increases, rate
of photosynthesis also increases.
● Temperature - photosynthesis requires enzymes to carry out the reaction. As
these enzymes have an optimum temperature, photosynthesis also has an
optimum temperature. This is usually about 25°C. At low temperatures, for
example in the winter, plants photosynthesize slowly as the enzymes have little
kinetic energy, thus few enzyme-substrate complexes are made. At very high
temperatures, these enzymes denature, also slowing the rate of photosynthesis.
● Light intensity - As the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis
increases. A high light intensity can sometimes lead to the plant heating up
above the optimum temperature. This means that temperature would become the
limiting factor and the rate of photosynthesis would not be increased by a
further increase in light intensity. Minerals in plants: Minerals are taken up
actively by root hair cells and have a variety of important roles in the plant.
● Nitrate ions - nitrate ions are used in the plant to build amino acids, and thus
proteins and enzymes. Without nitrate ions, the plant would not be able to grow
or repair itself.
● Magnesium ions - magnesium ions are used to make chlorophyll; thus, a lack
of magnesium ions will lead to a lack of chlorophyll, meaning that
photosynthesis cannot occur. This means that sugars cannot be formed through
photosynthesis, therefore the plant will not have a sufficient enough energy
source to grow and repair itself. The lack of either of these ions leads to yellow
leaves and poor growth, eventually leading to the plant’s death.
Testing the need for chlorophyll in photosynthesis: To test for the need of
chlorophyll in photosynthesis, we have to test for the presence of starch. Starch
presence indicates that photosynthesis has occurred. Although glucose is
directly produced by photosynthesis, we cannot test for glucose directly because
it is quickly converted to substances like starch.
A variegated leaf plant should be used. A variegated leaf plant contains leaves
with both green and white patches. The plant should be kept in darkness for 48
hours to deplete the starch. The starch is broken down into glucose, which is
used for respiration. The plant should then be placed in sunlight so new starch
can be produced. The leaves should then be covered with iodine. Iodine is used
to test for starch. The green patches will turn blue-black, indicating starch
production, while the white patches remain orange-brown. Starch is only
produced in the green areas, which shows photosynthesis only occurs in the
green areas. Therefore photosynthesis only occurs where chlorophyll is present.
Testing the need for light in photosynthesis: To test for the need of light in
photosynthesis, a plant should be depleted of starch by keeping it in darkness
for 48 hours. Clip a piece of aluminum foil onto one leaf, then place the plant in
sunlight to allow new starch to be produced. The leaves should then be covered
with iodine. The leaf clipped with aluminum foil will turn orange-brown and the
areas of the plant exposed with sunlight will turn blue-black. This shows starch
is only produced in the areas which were exposed to sunlight, which shows that
photosynthesis only occurs in these areas. Therefore light is needed for
photosynthesis.
Testing the need for carbon dioxide in photosynthesis: To test for the need of
carbon dioxide in photosynthesis, two plants should be depleted of starch by
keeping them in darkness. Both plants should be covered by transparent bags: a
petri dish of sodium hydrogencarbonate and a petri dish of soda lime in the
other bag. Sodium hydrogencarbonate is used to produce carbon dioxide
whereas soda lime absorbs carbon dioxide. The plants should then be placed in
sunlight and the leaves should be covered in iodine. The leaves from the plant
with soda lime turn orange brown as no starch is produced in this plant. The
leaves from the plant with sodium hydrogencarbonate turn blue black as starch
is produced in this plant.
The effect of light and dark conditions on gas exchange in aquatic plants:
● Four test tubes should be set up with an equal volume of hydrogencarbonate
indicator solution(an orange indicator solution).
● The test tubes should be set up the following way:
○ Test tube 1: a control tube (no leaf present)
○ Test tube 2: contains a leaf
○ Test tube 3: contains a leaf and test tube covered with aluminum foil
○ Test tube 4: contains a leaf and test tube covered with gauze
● Place a bung into the top of each test tube
● The test tubes should be exposed to sunlight for 24 hours Results:
● Test tube 1 will show no colour change(will remain orange).
● Test tube 2 turns colour from orange to purple. This is because when exposed
to sunlight, the rate of photosynthesis is greater than the rate of respiration. This
means more CO₂ is removed from the test tube. Thus the colour of the test tube
turns purple.
● Test tube 3 turns colour from orange to yellow. Aluminum foil prevents the
entry of light into the test tube. Therefore the rate of respiration is greater than
the rate of photosynthesis, causing more CO₂ to be released into the test tube.
This causes the colour of the test tube to turn yellow.
● Test tube 4 remains orange. Gauze partially allows light to pass through. This
means the rate of photosynthesis is equal to the rate of respiration. As there is no
change in CO₂ in the test tube, the indicator solution remains orange.
Leaf structure
Most plant leaves have a large surface area and are thin. These features are
important adaptations to allow photosynthesis to occur. This means limiting
water loss, absorbing as much light energy as possible and allowing for efficient
gas exchange.

Chloroplasts - This is where photosynthesis occurs. Chloroplasts contain

chlorophyll which allows light energy to be absorbed and converted to chemical
energy.
● Cuticle - The cuticle is a clear waxy layer that surrounds the leaf. This
provides waterproofing and reduces water loss from the leaf without reducing
light absorption.
● Guard cells and stomata - Stomata are located on the lower side of the leaf
and allow carbon dioxide in by diffusion, and water vapour and oxygen out of
the leaf by diffusion. Guard cells surround the stomata and can control the
opening and closing of the stomata to limit water loss from the plant; when
there is a limited water supply, the guard cells cause the stomata to close to
prevent water loss. This, however, also reduces the diffusion of carbon dioxide
through the stomata for use in photosynthesis, so can cause carbon dioxide to
become the limiting factor and reduce the rate of photosynthesis. Plants in hot
places often have fewer stomata to reduce water loss. Some plants, for example
cacti, only open their stomata at night.
● Upper and lower epidermis - the epidermis acts as a protective barrier around
the leaf to prevent pathogens entering and causing harm to the organism.
Epidermis cells are transparent to let light pass through and do not contain
chloroplasts.
● Palisade mesophyll - these cells are positioned near the top of the leaf where
most sunlight hits, thus palisade cells are adapted to absorb light energy
efficiently. The palisade layer cells contain many chloroplasts to carry out
photosynthesis. There are also gaps between the cells to allow for efficient gas
exchange and osmosis to occur. CO2 and water move into the cells to be used in
the photosynthesis reaction.
● Spongy mesophyll - This is the lower layer of the leaf. The spongy mesophyll
has air spaces which increase the surface area and allow the rapid diffusion of
CO₂, water and oxygen into the leaf when the stomata are open.
● Vascular bundles - vascular bundles form the plant’s transport system. They
consist of the xylem and the phloem, as well as other cells around them which
provide support.
● Xylem - the xylem is used to transport water through plants from the roots in
transpiration. The xylem is made from hollowed-out dead cells that have the
ends removed to make a tube for water to pass through. They have a thick cell
wall to provide structural strength and are thin to allow capillary action.
● Phloem - the phloem is made of living cells and is used to transport sugars
and food nutrients in translocation. The cells of the phloem are adapted by
having no nucleus.
Chapter 8:
Xylem and Phloem
Plants have a transport system made up of xylem and phloem vessels. These
transport nutrients from the roots of the plant to the stem and leaves, and vice
versa.
The xylem is used to transport water and mineral ions through plants from the
roots in transpiration. Some of the adaptations of the xylem which made them
suitable to be used to transport water are:
● Surrounded with thick walls with lignin
● They are hollow, with no cell contents, providing more rooms to transport
water
● Xylem cells are joined end-to-end with no cross walls to form a long
continuous tube for water to pass through.
The phloem is made of living cells and is used to transport sucrose and amino
acids in translocation.
Water uptake
Water is taken up by root hair cells via osmosis. The water then moves into the
root cortex cells by osmosis (as the root hair cells now have a higher water
potential than the cortex cells), before entering the xylem vessel where it is
drawn up the stem to the leaves. At the leaf it diffuses into mesophyll cells
where it is used in metabolic reactions such as photosynthesis.
The pathway above can be investigated by placing a plant into a beaker of water
with stain added to it. Place it under room temperature and under bright light.
After several hours, the leaves of the plant should turn the same colour as the
dyed water. This proves that water is being taken up by the plant. When a cross-
section of the plant is taken, it can be seen that only the xylem vessels are
stained.
The root hairs increase the surface area of the cell. This increases the rate of
osmosis into the root, which maximises the rate of water uptake. The rate of ion
uptake is also increased by active transport. They also have a thin wall, so the
diffusion distance is shortened.
Transpiration
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the leaves due to evaporation.
The water evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cell into the air spaces
and then diffuses out of the leaves through the stomata as water vapour. The
interconnecting air spaces between the mesophyll cells create a large internal
surface area. This increases the amount of water which can evaporate from the
leaf. A greater number of stomata leads to more evaporation of water vapour
from the leaves, thus greater rate of transpiration. A larger size of stomata also
leads to a higher transpiration rate.
Water molecules are drawn up the xylem by transpiration pull (not osmosis).
Water molecules are cohesive, meaning they stick together. This means that as
the water evaporates at the leaf and diffuses out of the stomata, more water is
drawn up the plant from the roots.
The rate of transpiration depends on the temperature and wind speed. On warm
days the temperature is higher, so water evaporates more easily, therefore there
is more diffusion of water vapour out of the plant, so the rate of transpiration is
high. On windy days, the wind will blow away more water vapour from the
surface of the leaves, causing an increase in rate of transpiration. A high
humidity, however, decreases the rate of transpiration as the concentration
gradient of water vapour between the inside and outside of the plant is
comparatively low, so diffusion out of the plant is slower.
Water helps maintain plant structure by keeping cells turgid. If the plant loses
too much water which is not replaced, it begins to wilt as water moves out of
cells and turgor pressure decreases. To limit water loss, the plant closes the
stomata to prevent water vapour diffusing out.
Translocation
Translocation occurs in the phloem vessels and involves the transport of amino
acids and sucrose from sources to sinks. Areas where amino acids and sucrose
are produced are called sources. Regions where they are stored or used for
respiration and growth are called sinks. Materials are always transported from
source to sink.
Sucrose and amino acids are produced in the leaves, before being transported to
the roots for storage. They are later transported to regions where they are used
in respiration and for growth. Some parts of the plant, such as the leaves, can act
as both source and sink within a plant’s life as they synthesise molecules and
use them in metabolic reactions.
Chapter 11:
Human respiratory system
Key structures:
● Lungs - The lungs are the main organs in the respiratory system, containing
the surfaces where gas exchange takes place.
● Ribs and intercostal muscles - Intercostal muscles are found between the ribs.
Internal and external intercostal muscles work antagonistically in pairs to
expand and contract the rib cage during breathing. The ribs also protect the
lungs and heart from physical damage.
● Larynx - contains the vocal cords.
● Trachea - connects the throat to the bronchi. C-shaped cartilage rings are
present to provide structural strength, keeping the trachea open so that air can
pass through it.
● Bronchi - hollow tubes composed of cartilage rings that carry air from the
trachea to the lungs. The bronchi splits into two tubes to enter the left and right
lung, before branching further inside the lungs.
● Bronchioles - Smaller tubes which branch off from the bronchi in the lungs,
leading to the alveoli.
● Alveoli - Where gas exchange occurs; comprising tiny air sacs with a
capillary network. Oxygen from the air diffuses into the capillaries, whilst waste
carbon dioxide diffuses out. Waste gases are then breathed out.
Ventilation: Ventilation is the act of moving air into and out of the lungs to
allow gas exchange to occur.
● Breathing in - internal intercostal muscles relax whilst the external intercostal
muscles contract, pulling the ribs up and out while the diaphragm flattens,
pushing the abdominal muscles downwards. The volume in the thorax (chest
cavity) increases, so air enters the lungs. Air diffuses into the lungs, rather than
being ‘sucked’ in. This is because when the volume of the chest increases, there
is a lower concentration of air inside the lungs compared to outside, thus air
diffuses in.
● Breathing out - volume of thorax decreases, increasing pressure so that air is
forced out. This is passive (does not require muscle contraction) except when
forcibly breathing out, where the internal intercostal muscles contract.
The majority of air in the atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, oxygen and
carbon dioxide. Inhaled air is made up of more oxygen than exhaled air, as
oxygen is absorbed into the blood in the alveoli instead of being exhaled.
Oxygen is used in cells for respiration, and carbon dioxide is produced as a
waste product. This carbon dioxide is released from the blood at the alveoli and
diffuses out into the lungs, before being exhaled, thus there is more carbon
dioxide in exhaled air. Exhaled air also contains more water vapour than inhaled
air.
During physical activity, the rate and the depth of breathing increases. When
exercise is carried out, muscles increase the rate of respiration to produce
energy for muscle contraction. Aerobic respiration requires oxygen; thus, a
greater amount of oxygen is demanded. In addition, a greater amount of carbon
dioxide is produced as a waste substance, which diffuses into the blood. This
increase in carbon dioxide in the blood is detected by the brain, which causes
the rate of breathing to speed up, allowing gas exchange to happen more rapidly,
expelling the carbon dioxide whilst taking in more oxygen. The heart rate is also
increased to pump substances around the body more quickly in the blood.
Adaptations of exchange surfaces:
● Large surface area - allows more efficient diffusion. The alveoli allow the
lungs to have a huge surface area of 80-100 square metres.
● Thin surface - this means that there is a short diffusion distance, thus
exchange can occur more rapidly.
● Good blood supply - Maintains concentration gradient by carrying away
substances which have diffused across already.
● Good ventilation with air - this means that waste gases can diffuse out of the
blood into the air in the lungs whilst oxygen diffuses into the blood.
● Moist - Allows gases to dissolve before diffusing across the membrane.
The lungs are also adapted to protect from foreign pathogens and particles.
Goblet cells, found in the trachea and bronchi, are adapted to secrete mucus into
the respiratory tract. Foreign pathogens and particles stick to this mucus, which
is then moved upwards towards the throat by cilia (hair-like projections from
some cells). Mucus is then swallowed, and pathogens are destroyed in the acidic
conditions in the stomach.
Respiration
Respiration is a chemical reaction which happens in almost all cells in the body
to produce energy from nutrient molecules.
This energy can be used in a variety of processes including:
● Muscle contraction
● Protein synthesis
● Cell division
● Active transport
● Growth
● Nerve impulses
● Maintaining body temperature
Respiration usually occurs with the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration),
although it can occur in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic respiration).
Anaerobic respiration is less efficient and leads to fatigue in humans. Both types
of respiration are catalysed by enzymes. This means that the rate of respiration
can be influenced by factors such as temperature and pH.
For instance, temperature can have a significant effect on yeast respiration. In
yeast, the rate of respiration increases up to about 35°C. Above this optimum
temperature, respiration slows down as high heat denatures the enzymes which
are responsible in catalysing respiration.
Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen. Glucose is broken down
into carbon dioxide, water and energy with the help of oxygen. This occurs in
the cell mitochondria. Cells which require lots of energy, such as muscle cells,
therefore have high amounts of mitochondria.
Equations for aerobic respiration:
● glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
● C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
Anaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration is a chemical reaction in cells that break down nutrient
molecules to release energy without using oxygen. It is less efficient than
aerobic respiration and produces less energy per glucose molecule. It occurs in
the cell cytoplasm and thus does not require mitochondria.
Animal cells undergo anaerobic respiration during vigorous exercise as not
enough oxygen is delivered to muscles. In this reaction, glucose is broken down
to produce lactic acid, as well as releasing energy. This lactic acid builds up in
muscles and causes muscle fatigue. Anaerobic respiration also produces an
‘oxygen debt’. To repay this, the lactic acid must be transported to the liver
where it is broken down into carbon dioxide and water using oxygen. This is the
reason why the breathing and heart rates remain high after exercise.
Microorganisms, such as yeast, also undergo anaerobic respiration. Yeast breaks
down anaerobically to form alcohol and carbon dioxide instead of lactic acid.
Equations for anaerobic respiration in yeast:
● glucose → alcohol + carbon dioxide
● C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Equation for anaerobic respiration in animal cells:
● glucose → lactic acid

Chapter 12:
Excretion in Humans
Waste products:
● Urea - urea is formed in the liver as a result of an excess of amino acids.
Amino acids cannot be stored in the body, unlike glucose and other nutrients,
thus excess amino acids that cannot be converted to proteins and used in the
body are removed from the body in a process called de-amination. De-
amination takes place in the liver and involves the removal of the nitrogen-
containing section of the amino acids. This forms urea, which is then filtered
from the blood by the kidney and excreted from the body as urine.
● Carbon dioxide - Carbon dioxide is a waste product produced in cells during
respiration; carbon dioxide exits cells and is dissolved in the blood, where it is
carried to the lungs to be excreted.
● Excess water and ions - Filtered from the blood by the kidney and excreted as
urine.
The Kidney
The kidney’s role is to filter waste and excess substances from the blood to be
excreted from the body as urine. It is important for these substances to be
filtered out of the blood, as a build-up of toxins could cause harm to the
organism.
The renal system: Blood enters the kidney through the renal artery and exits
through the renal vein.
● Cortex - the outer region of the kidney; the cortex contains nephrons.
● Nephron - the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. It contains the
glomerulus, which is where the blood is filtered and glucose, urea, water and
salts are removed.
● Medulla - the inner region of the kidney.
● Ureter - tubes that transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder, where it is
stored before being excreted from the body.
The kidney contains millions of functional units called nephrons. The cortex is
the outermost area of the kidney. The medulla is the inner area of the kidney.
Blood is transported to the kidney through the renal artery. The glomerulus is
located at the beginning of the nephron and is surrounded by many capillaries
branching from the renal artery. Blood enters the glomerulus, where substances
such as glucose, water, urea and ions are filtered out.
Along the nephron, useful substances are reabsorbed back into the blood. All of
the glucose and some of the ions are reabsorbed. The tubule also reabsorbs most
of the water back into the capillaries filled with blood. This blood returns to the
heart via the renal vein.
The remaining fluid in the nephron mostly consists of excess water which was
not filtered out or reabsorbed into the blood. It also consists of urea and excess
ions. This forms urine.
Urea is toxic to the body at higher concentrations. Through excretion, urea is
removed which prevents it from reaching toxic levels in the body.