8th semester B.

Tech ChED

CH-18101
HAZARDS AND SAFETY IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES

Department of Chemical Engineering

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad
Allahabad – 211 004, U.P (India)
 SYLLABUS
UNIT-1: INTRODUCTION 6L
Risk Analysis, Rapid risk analysis, Comprehensive risk analysis, Failure types and release rate
calculations, Emission and dispersion, Dispersion models for dense gas, Plume dispersion, Jet
dispersion, and Toxic dispersion model Evaluation of risk contours.

UNIT-2: CONSEQUENCE ANALYSIS: 5L

Radiation, Tank on fire, Flame length, Radiation intensity calculation and its effect on plant,
people & properly, UCVCE,

UNIT-3: FIRE AND EXPLOSION: 6 L

Explosion due to deflatration, Detonation, TNT, TNO & DSM model, Over pressure, Effects
of explosion, Risk contour, Flash fire, Jet fire, Pool fire, BLEVE, Fire ball.

UNIT -4: RISK MANAGEMENT: 7L

Overall risk analysis, Generation of Meteorological data, Ignition data, Population data,
Overall risk contours for different failure scenarios, Disaster management plan, Emergency
Planning, on site & offsite emergency planning, Risk management & IS0 14000, EMS models,
Case studies, Marketing terminal, gas processing complex, refinery.

UNIT-5: PAST ACCIDENT ANALYSIS: 6L

Hazard identification, Safety Audits, Checklists, What if Analysis, Vulnerability models, Event
tree and Fault tree Analysis, Past accident analysis Flixborough, Mexico, Bhopal, Vizak 3
miles, island chernoobyl, feyzih disasters, seveso accident analysis.

UNIT-6: HAZOPS: 6L
Principles, Risk ranking, Guide word, Parameter, Deviation, Consequences,
Recommendations, Coarse HAZOP study, Case studies Pumping system, Reactor System,
Mass transfer system.
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 SYLLABUS Contd.
Text books and references:

1. Daniel A. Crowl and Joseph F. Louvar, “Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with
Applications” by Pearson Publishers

2. K. V. Raghavan and A. A Khan, "Methodologies in Hazard Identification and Risk

Assessment", Manual by CLRI.

3. V. C. Marshal, "Major Chemical Hazards", Ellis Hawood Ltd., Chichester, United

Kingdom.

4. Kletz, "Risk Analysis HAZOPS” Institute of Engineers, U.K.

5. Frank P. Less, "Loss Prevention in Process Industries", Vol. I, II & III Butterworth,
London.

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 Terminologies
SAFETY in simple terms means freedom from the occurrence of risk or injury or
loss. The prevention of accidents through the use of appropriate technologies to
identify the hazards of a chemical plant and eliminate them before an accident
occurs.

INDUSTRIAL SAFETY refers to the protection of workers from the danger of

industrial accidents.

HAZARD is a term associated with a chemical or physical condition that has the
potential to cause damage to people, property, or the environment.

INDUSTRIAL HAZARD may be defined as any condition produced by industries

that may cause injury or death to personnel or loss of product or property.

RISK is a measure of human injury, environmental damage, or economic loss in

terms of both the incident likelihood and the magnitude of the loss or injury.

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 Safety Programs
A successful safety program requires several ingredients. These ingredients are
• System
• Attitude
• Fundamentals
• Experience
• Time
• You

1. First, the program needs a system (1) to record what needs to be done to have an outstanding safety program, (2) to do what needs to be done, and (3) to record

that the required tasks are done.

2. Second, the participants must have a positive attitude. This includes the willingness to do some of the thankless work that is required for success.
3. Third, the participants must understand and use the fundamentals of chemical process safety in the design, construction, and operation of their plants.
Fourth, everyone must learn from the experience of history or be doomed to repeat it. It is especially recommended that employees (1) read and
understand case histories of past accidents and (2) ask people in their own and other organizations for their experience and advice.
4. Fifth, everyone should recognize that safety takes time. This includes time to study, time to do the work, time to record results (for history), time to
share experiences, and time to train or be trained.
5. Sixth, everyone (you) should take the responsibility to contribute to the safety program. A safety program must have the commitment from all levels
within the organization. Safety must be given importance equal to production. 5
THEORIES OF ACCIDENT CAUSATION

Department of Chemical Engineering

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad
Allahabad – 211 004, U.P (India)
THEORIES OF ACCIDENT CAUSATION
There are several major theories concerning accident causation, each
of which has some explanatory and predictive value

1. The domino theory developed by H. W. Heinrich, a safety engineer

and pioneer in the field of industrial accident safety.
2. Human Factors Theory
3. Accident/Incident Theory
4. Epidemiological Theory
5. Systems Theory
6. Behavior Theory

Accident theories guide safety investigations. They describe the

scope of an investigation.

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 HEINRICH'S DOMINO THEORY
Heinrich's Domino Theory states that accidents result from a chain of sequential
events, metaphorically like a line of dominoes falling over. When one of the
dominoes falls, it triggers the next one, and the next... - but removing a key factor
(such as an unsafe condition or an unsafe act) prevents the start of the chain
reaction.

1932 First Scientific Approach to Accident/Prevention - H.W.

Heinrich

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 Components of Safety Triangle
(Heinrich’s Triangle Theory)

A “proactive” approach focuses on these

categories, but be careful – you may miss the
really serious ones!
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10
11
 BEHAVIORAL THEORY
Frank Bird (1970) developed Loss
Control Theory. Suggested that
underlying cause of accidents are lack
of management controls and poor
management decisions. Problem: not
so popular & blames management
(responsibility and control).

In 1980’s, Behavioural Based Heinrich’s Domino Theory states that

Safety (BBS) was introduced based
accidents result from a chain of sequential
on Heinrich’s findings. Work by
recognizing safe work habits and events, metaphorically like a line of dominoes
offering rewards and punishment. falling over. When one of the dominoes falls,
Problem: focuses on workers and not
it triggers the next one and the next
on hazard or management & reward
and punishment system have flaws. continuously. But removing a key factor
(such as an unsafe condition or an unsafe
act) prevents the start of the chain
reaction. 12
BEHAVIORAL THEORY

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HUMAN FACTORS THEORY

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15
 ACCIDENT/ INCIDENT THEORY

"INCIDENT" is then applied to unwanted events that fall short of being an accident. It also refers to a
particular event, often something unusual or unpleasant ("many such incidents go unreported")

"ACCIDENT" to describe an incident that results in serious consequences that the organization wants to
avoid.
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Epidemiological relating to the branch of
medicine which deals with the incidence,
distribution, and control of disease

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A SYSTEMS MODEL THEORY OF ACCIDENTS

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COMBINATION THEORY

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PAST ACCIDENT SCENARIO

Department of Chemical Engineering

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad
Allahabad – 211 004, U.P (India)
Case Study: Bhopal Gas Tragedy
 Around 1 a.m. on Monday, December 03, 1984, in the city of Bhopal, a poisonous
vapour burst from the tall stacks of the Union Carbide pesticide plant.

 This vapour was a highly toxic cloud of methyl isocyanate (MIC).

 2,000 died immediately
 300,000 were injured
 7,000 animals were injured, of which about one thousand were killed.

The possible causes

• A tank containing methyl isocyanate (MIC) leaked.
• MIC is an extremely reactive chemical and is used in The possible reasons
production of the insecticide carbaryl.
• The scientific reason for the accident was that water One of the main reasons for the
entered the tank where about 40 cubic meters of MIC tragedy was found to be a result of a
was stored. combination of human factors and
• When water and MIC mixed, an exothermic chemical an incorrectly designed safety
reaction started, producing a lot of heat. system.
• As a result, the safety valve of the tank burst because of A portion of the safety equipment at
the increase in pressure.
the plant had been non-operational
• It is presumed that between 20 and 30 tonnes of MIC
were released during the hour that the leak took place.
for four months and the rest failed.
• The gas leaked from a 30 m high chimney and this
height was not enough to reduce the effects of the
discharge. Courtesy:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_disaster
 Emergency planning & response

Toxic Materials in Soil and Water

PHA operating procedure
Mechanical integrity

Management of change
Work permit system

Reasons:
Courtesy:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_disaster
Unsafe act & condition
Personal & job factors
 Summary of Case Study
LAPSES ON THE PART OF THE GOVERNMENT
• Union Carbide Corporation (UCC) became a subsidiary • The Madhya Pradesh State government had not mandated any
of The Dow Chemical Company (TDCC) in 2001. TDCC safety standards.
did not assume UCC’s liabilities and still continue to • Union Carbide failed to implement its own safety rules.
resist outstanding litigation claims, insisting that the
• The Bhopal plant experienced six accidents between 1981 and
cause of the leak was employee sabotage.
1984, at least three of which involved MIC or phosgene.
• The chemical industry learned and grew as a result of LAPSES ON PART OF UNION CARBIDE
Bhopal – creating the Responsible Care Program with
• Improper design and maintenance of safety equipment.
its strengthened focus on process safety standards,
• Decision to neglect a flare system in need of repair.
emergency preparedness and community awareness.
• Inadequate emergency planning and community
• The industry also has worked with governmental awareness.
regulators to assure that industry best practices are • Lack of awareness of the potential impact of MIC on the
implemented through regulations for the protection of community by the people operating the plant.
workers and communities. • Inadequate community planning, allowing a large population
to live near a hazardous manufacturing plant.

“A disgruntled plant employee, apparently bent on

spoiling a batch of methyl isocyanate, added water
to a storage tank”
B. Browning Jackson (Vice President)

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Courtesy: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopal_disaster
 Summary of Case Study
• Union Carbide Corporation (UCC) became a subsidiary of The Dow
Chemical Company (TDCC) in 2001. TDCC did not assume UCC’s
liabilities and still continue to resist outstanding litigation claims,
insisting that the cause of the leak was employee sabotage.
• The chemical industry learned and grew as a result of Bhopal – creating
the Responsible Care program with its strengthened focus on:
(1) Process Safety Management,
(2) Emergency Preparedness and
(3) Safety Audit
• The industry also has worked with governmental regulators to assure
that industry best practices are implemented through regulations for the
protection of workers and communities.

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The Flixborough Disaster
• Explosion at Nypro (UK) Ltd - one of the most
serious accidents in the history of the chemical
industry and the most serious in the UK.

• The Flixborough Works of Nypro Limited was

designed to produce 70,000 tons per year of
caprolactam, a basic raw material for the
production of nylon.

• Date and Time - Saturday, 1 June 1974, 16:53

• Consequences - 28 fatalities, many persons

onsite and offsite injured, plant equipment and
buildings destroyed, 1821 houses and 167 shops
damaged (some damaged beyond repair).

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 • The feed pipes connecting the reactors were 28 inches in diameter. Because only 20-inch pipe stock was
available at the plant, the connections to reactor 4 and reactor 6 were made using flexible bellows-type
piping, as shown in Figure.

• It is hypothesized that the bypass pipe section

ruptured because of inadequate support and
overflexing of the pipe section as a result of
internal reactor pressures.

• Upon rupture of the bypass, an estimated 30 tons

of cyclohexane volatilized and formed a large
vapor cloud. The cloud was ignited by an unknown
source an estimated 45 seconds after the release.

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 Overview of the site A closer view of the connecting pipe’s
location

Damaged site building Leak source - location of the (absent) 20” pipe
connecting the reactor vessels

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 ASSIGNMENT-1
Q. Write a note on the following case histories of significant
disasters occurred in process plant:
1. Flixborough, England
2. Bhopal Gas Tragedy, India
3. Three Mile Island, USA
4. Chernobyl, Ukraine
5. Pasadena, Texas
6. Feyzin Disasters, France
7. Port Wentworth, Gorgia
8. Jacksonville, Florida
9. Fukushima Daiichi, Japan
10. Seveso Disaster, Italy
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PROCESS SAFETY MANAGEMENT (PSM)

Department of Chemical Engineering

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad
Allahabad – 211 004, U.P (India)
What is Safety Management System ?
GOAL
A safety management system (SMS) is a
systematic approach to managing safety, including Zero accidents
organizational structures, accountabilities, policies
Zero harm to people
and procedures.
Zero environmental damage

Occupational Health and Safety Regulations 1994 (Safety Standards)

Safety Management System (SMS):
• The employer must prepare and implement a comprehensive and integrated system (a
safety management system) for managing safety and preventing the occurrence of major
accidents at the major hazard facility (MHF).
• It should be fully documented, accessible and comprehensible to those that need to use it
• It recognises the potential for errors and establishes robust defences (control measures)
which are fully implemented, to ensure that errors do not result in accidents or near misses
• It is comprises a set of work practices and procedures for monitoring and improving the
safety and health of all aspects of the operation
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 Components of Safety Triangle
(Heinrich’s Triangle Theory)

A “proactive” approach focuses on these

categories, but be careful – you may miss the
really serious ones!
31
 Key Elements of the SMS

Effective health and safety

polices set a clear direction for
the organization to follow An effective management structure
and arrangements are in place for
delivering the policy. There is a
planned and systematic approach to
implementing the health and safety
policy

The policies and procedures are

put in place to manage all
aspects of the control measures
that ensure safe operation of the
facility
Performance is measured against
agreed standards to reveal when and
where improvement is needed

The organization learns from all

relevant experience and applies
the lessons
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 What Types of Industries?
• Industries that Process Chemicals Such As:
– Industrial Organics & Inorganics
– Paints
– Pharmaceuticals
– Adhesives
– Sealants and Fibers
– Petrochemical facilities
– Paper Mills
– Food Processing with Anhydrous Ammonia over
the TQ

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 Strategic Managerial Task

Planning
Planning
Organizing
Planning
Organizing
Implementing
Implementing
Organizing

Controlling Controlling Controlling

Examples of SMS, management systems concerns at different

organizational levels

CCPS: Guidelines for Technical Management of Chemical Process Safety

 Features and characteristics of a management
system for process safety
Planning Organizing
Explicit goals and objectives Strong sponsorship
Well-defined scope Clear lines of authority
Clear-cut desired outputs Explicit assignments of roles and
Consideration of alternative achievement responsibilities
mechanisms Formal procedures
Well-defined inputs and resource Internal coordination and communication
requirements
Identification of needed tools and training
Implementing Controlling
Detailed work plans Performance standards and
Specific milestones for accomplishments measurement methods
Initiating mechanisms Checks and balances
Performance measurement and reporting
Internal reviews
Variance procedures
Audit mechanisms
Corrective action mechanisms
Procedure renewal and reauthorization

CCPS: Guidelines for Technical Management of Chemical Process Safety

 In General: SMS
• Safety Policy may be formulated to show • Periodical Medical Examinations for all the
the management commitment towards
safety employees and contract workers to be done

• Illumination and Noise Survey should be

• Safety Committee may be framed with
representatives from all the dept. at a conducted periodically
worker level and managerial level
• Emergency plan should be framed
• Safety Training (Usage of Portable Fire
• Mock drill should be conducted periodically
Extinguisher, First Aid, PPE etc.) may be
conducted periodically, including contract • Security may be given training on fire fighting
workers
procedures and first aid.
• Work permit systems (hot work and cold • Adequacy of the portable fire extinguishers
work) may be followed
are to be checked as per IS:2190 and should
• SOP should be framed and should be be maintained.
made available at the work places
 SAFETY DEPENDS ON Accident and
Work permit incident analysis

Engineering
Emergency

Procurement
Hardware
Software

Humanware
Leadership
PPE

Health and
Hygiene
Task observation
 The ‘Swiss cheese’ model of
SSAP
organisational accidents 2

Some holes due Hazards

To active failures

Other holes due to

latent conditions
Losses
Successive layers of defences

Reason’s “Cheese Model”

eason - The Management of Safety, SSAP Launch Event 17/02/2004
James Reason, presentation to Eurocontrol 2004
 Active and latent failures
• Active
– Immediately adverse effect
– Similar to “unsafe act”

• Latent
– Effect may not be noticeable for some time, if at all
– Similar to “resident pathogen”. Unforeseen trigger conditions could
activate the pathogens and defences could be undermined or
unexpectedly outflanked
 A Classic Example of a Latent Failure

• Hazard of material
known, but lack of
awareness of potential
system failure mode
leads to defective
procedure design
through management
decision

Epichlorhydrin fire,
Avonmouth, UK
Why did OSHA develop Safety Management
System?
• Bhopal, India (1984)
– 2,000 deaths
Isocyanate release
• Pasadena, TX (1989)
– 23 deaths, 132 injuries
Petroleum explosion
• Cincinnati, OH (1990)
– 2 deaths
Explosion
• Sterlington, LA (1991)
– 8 deaths, 128 injuries
Chemical release

Feb. 14, 1992 OSHA published “Process Safety

Management of Highly Hazardous Chemicals” to
prevent similar accidents like the Bhopal accident
(1984) 41
 SAFETY MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

• Safety Survey: Detailed examination of a narrower field of activity-e.g.-

key areas revealed by safety audits
• Safety Inspection: Routine inspection-work is being carried in
accordance with procedures etc.
• Safety Tour: Unscheduled examination, hazards are removed and
standards are implemented
• Safety Action Plan: Identify and eliminate physical, ergonomic, biological
and chemical exposures will assist the employer in the reduction of the
number of work-related injuries and occupational diseases
• Safety Audit: A structured process whereby information is collected
relating to the efficiency, effectiveness, and reliability of a company's total
health and safety management system.
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 SAFETY AUDIT

Department of Chemical Engineering

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad
Allahabad – 211 004, U.P (India)
Why do we need SAFETY AUDIT…

To carry out a systematic, critical appraisal of all

potential hazards involving personnel, plant,
services and operation method
To ensure that Occupational Safety and Health
system fully satisfy the legal requirements and
those of the company’s written safety policies,
objectives and progress
Understand the current risk control measures
Identify gaps in current control measures with
respect to national / international standards
Suggest suitable risk control/ mitigation
measures for improvement
 Scope of Safety Audit
• Safety Management
• Fire Prevention and Protection
• Work injury prevention
• Electrical Installations
• Hazardous Chemicals - Handling and Storage
• Mechanical Equipment
• Emergency & communication Management
• Statutory Regulations Compliance Audit
Safety Leadership is key to success

Survey by Linkage, inc., 1999

 Safety Culture
• Liveware

Safety Culture

• Hardware Software

Acts-Practice-Habit-Behavior-Culture
48
Report format…
 Mini Project
Conduct a safety audit in your hostel mess/
cafeteria/ institute lab. Submit the audit
report with your findings and
recommendations as per safety norms.

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Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
Standards

Department of Chemical Engineering

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad
Allahabad – 211 004, U.P (India)
OSHA Incidence Rate
OSHA stands for the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration of the United States
government.

OSHA is responsible for ensuring that workers are

provided with a safe working
environment.

The OSHA incidence rate is based on cases per 100 worker years. A worker year is
assumed to contain 2000 hours (50 work weeks/ year X 40 hours/ week). The
OSHA incidence rate is therefore based on 200,000 hours of worker exposure to a
hazard. The OSHA incidence rate is calculated from the number of occupational
injuries and illnesses and the total number of employee hours worked during the
applicable period. The following equation is used:
 OSHA incidence rate
An incidence rate can also be based on lost workdays instead of injuries
and illnesses. For this case

The OSHA incidence rate provides information on all types of work-related

injuries and illnesses, including fatalities. This provides a better
representation of worker accidents than systems based on fatalities alone.
For instance, a plant might experience many small accidents with resulting
injuries but no fatalities. On the other hand, fatality data cannot be
extracted from the OSHA incidence rate without additional information.
 Fatal Accident Rate (FAR)
The FAR is used mostly by the British chemical
industry. This statistic is used here because
there are some useful and interesting FAR data
available in the open literature.

The FAR reports the number of fatalities based

on 1000 employees working their entire
lifetime. The employees are assumed to work
a total of 50 years. Thus the FAR is based on
10' working hours. The resulting equation is
 Fatality Rate or Deaths Per Person Per Year
The last method considered is the fatality rate or deaths per
person per year. This system is independent of the number of
hours actually worked and reports only the number of
fatalities expected per person per year. This approach is
useful for performing calculations on the general population,
where the number of exposed hours is poorly defined. The
applicable equation is

• Both the OSHA incidence rate and the FAR depend on the number of exposed
hours.
• An employee working a ten-hour shift is at greater total risk than one working an
eight-hour shift.
• A FAR can be converted to a fatality rate (or vice versa) if the number of exposed
hours is known. The OSHA incidence rate cannot be readily converted to a FAR or
fatality rate because it contains both injury and fatality information.
EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS AND
RESPONSE

Department of Chemical Engineering

Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad
Allahabad – 211 004, U.P (India)
 Emergency Preparedness Plan..??
• An emergency plan is a written set of
instructions that outlines what workers
and others at the workplace should do in
an emergency.
• An emergency plan must provide for
the following: emergency procedures,
including: an effective response to
an emergency. evacuation procedures.
 Emergency Preparedness and Response
Regulatory Requirements
• Applicable Regulations
• Written policies and procedures implemented
• Emergency exit routes provided and marked
• Emergency lighting of workplace and exit routes
• Supervisors must inform workers of risk
• Annual emergency drills
• Inventory of substances that endanger
firefighters/rescuers
• Any worker assigned to firefighting to be physically
fit and trained annually
• Train workers in fire prevention
• Emergency rescue - qualified workers
• Personal Protective Equipment
• Maintenance of equipment
• Maintain effective communications with rescue and
evacuation personnel
 Emergency Preparedness and Response
Responsibilities
• Employer
• Manager
• Emergency Coordinator
• Supervisor
• Emergency Warden
• Worker
• JHS Committee
 Responsibilities
Workers Designated Supervisor
 Provide input into risk assessments  Emergency policies, procedures and work
 Participate in education, training & drills arrangements
 Understand and follow emergency
 Follow workplace procedures for emergency
procedures
evacuation and rescue
 Training - fire prevention, emergency
 Follow instructions of emergency wardens and evacuation and rescue
emergency supervisory personnel Managers
Employer  Recruit emergency wardens
 Emergency risk assessments are conducted  Ensure emergency plans posted
and documented  Assign responsibilities of other emergency
 Emergency evacuation and rescue program is personnel
maintained  Ensure emergency evacuation and rescue
 All facilities have accessible exit routes risk assessments are completed
 Exit routes - marked and have emergency  Site specific emergency procedure
lighting as required  Communication
Emergency Coordinator JHS Committee
 Identify need for emergency response  Review the effectiveness of drills
 Review and update risk assessments  Make recommendations on possible
 Compile and maintain documentation corrective actions
 Secure agreements with outside agencies
 Emergency Preparedness and Response
Emergency Orientation

• Provide evacuation instructions

• Ensure disabled staff get to areas of
refuge
• Ensure everyone gets out
• Ensure all doors are closed
• Place “all clear” tag on doors
• Leave the building A L L S PA C E
• Complete roll call CLEAR BEHIND
THIS
• Report to designated person DOOR
• Report anyone missing The space behind this door is
unoccupied.
EVACUATION INSTRUCTIONS:
Guide all people in a known space to the nearest
emergency exit or assembly area, close all windows and
doors, and
hang this sign on the outside knob for reference by
rescue agencies.
 Emergency Preparedness and Response

• Fire Prevention
– Trash and litter
– Keep the workplace areas neat and clean
– Fire alarm pull stations and extinguishers
– Know how to use fire extinguishers
– Check extinguishers in your area
– Store hazardous materials in designated areas
– Keep exits free of obstructions
– Smoke only where permitted
– Keep equipment clean and use it properly
– Handle flammable liquids with caution
– Know location of emergency exits and procedures
 Emergency Preparedness and Response
Worker Orientation
• Use of Fire Extinguishers
– Dry chemical extinguishers
– Foam extinguishers
– Carbon dioxide extinguishers
– Water extinguishers

• Summoning and Reporting to First Aid

 Emergency Preparedness and Response

Special Responses
• Spill Response

• Earthquake Response

• Bomb Threat Response

• Storm/thunder Response