Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A.

Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

The Bridges Design Specifications

1. AASHTO:(American Association State Highway and Transportation

officials)
2. AREA: (American Railway Engineering Association)
3. BS-5400: (British Standard)
4. ACI 343: (American Concrete Institute Committee)

Design Philosophies for Highway Bridges

▪ ASD -Allowable Stress Design (Working or Service Design Method)

▪ SDM -Strength Design Method (Ultimate Method)
▪ LRFD -Load and Resistance Factor Design

Allowable Stress Design Strength Design

Method
Load factor
▪ Dead load 1.0 1.2
▪ Live load 1.0 1.6
Material Allowable stress Strength reduction
Properties factor
𝑓𝑐 = 0.4 𝑓′𝑐
0.9 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑓𝑠 = 140 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑦 < 350 𝑀𝑃𝑎
∅ = [ 0.85 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 ]
𝑓𝑠 = 170 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑦 > 350 𝑀𝑃𝑎 0.7 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

Safety factor S. Within the material stresses 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑆. 𝐹. { }
F. 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Economic More conservative More economical

Serviceability No need to check serviceability It needs to check
requirement serviceability
requirements for cracks
and deflection

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 Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

The load and resistance factor design (LRFD) which was introduced in the
United States in the 1980s and which has been gaining wider acceptance by
structural engineers for design purposes.

LRFD Method of Bridge Design is a general statement for assuring safety in

engineering design is that the resistance of the components provided exceed
the demands put on them by applied loads, that is:

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑅) ≥ 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑠 (𝑄)

∅𝑅𝑛 ≥ 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ∑ 𝛾𝑖 𝑄𝑖

where;

𝑄𝑖 = Load Effect
𝑅𝑛 = Component Resistance
𝛾𝑖 = Load Factor
∅= Resistance Factor.

The resistance factor (𝜙) for a particular limit state must account for the
uncertainties in:

• Material properties (‫)مواصفات المواد‬

• Strength predicting equations (‫)المعادالت التي يتم من خاللها حساب المقاومة‬
• Workmanship (‫)جودة العمل‬
• Quality control (‫)التحكم بجودة التنفيذ‬
• Failure consequence (‫)أهمية المنشأ ونتائج االنهيار بحال حدوثه‬

Also, the load factor (𝛾𝑖), for a particular load type must consider the
uncertainties in:

• Loads magnitude (‫)قيمة الحمولة‬

• Loads arrangement (positions) (‫)موضع الحمولة‬
• Possible loads combinations (‫)إمكانية تراكب او تواجد الحموالت مع بعضها‬

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 Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

Design Load Combinations According to AASHTO LRFD

Common Load Combinations for Reinforced Concrete is

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐼: 1.25 𝐷𝐶 + 1.50 𝐷𝑊 + 1.75 (𝐿𝐿 + 𝐼𝑀)

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐼𝑉: 1.50 𝐷𝐶 + 1.50 𝐷𝑊

𝐹𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑒: 0.75 (𝐿𝐿 + 𝐼𝑀)

In selecting resistance factors and load factors for bridges, probability theory has
been applied to data on strength of materials and statistics on weights of
materials and vehicular loads.

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Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

Design Load on Bridges According to AASHTO LRFD

1. Gravity Loads:
Gravity loads are caused by the weight of an object on and the self-weight
of the bridge. Such loads are both permanent and transient and applied in a
downward direction (toward the center of the earth).
1.1 Permanent Loads
Permanent loads are those that remain on the bridge for an extended period of time,
perhaps for the entire service life. Such loads include:
▪ Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments (DC)
▪ Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (DW)
▪ Dead load of earth fill (EV)
▪ Earth pressure load (EH)
▪ Earth surcharge load (ES)

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 Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

▪ Locked-in erection stresses (EL)

▪ Downdrag (DD)

The two-letter abbreviations are those used by AASHTO. The densities of material are in
Table 3.5.1-1. The unit weight of reinforced concrete is generally taken as 0.8 kN/m3
greater than the unit weight of plain concrete. So, in the absence of more precise
information, take the specific weight of concrete (𝛶𝑐) = 24 kN/m3

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 Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

2. Vehicular Live Load

2.1 Number of Design Lanes
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 3600 𝑚𝑚
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 3000 𝑚𝑚

𝑤
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐿𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠 = 𝐼𝑁𝑇( )
3600

𝑤 = 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⁄𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟𝑠 .

Notes:

▪ In cases where the traffic lanes are less than 3600 mm (12 ft) wide, the
number of design lanes shall be equal to the number of traffic lanes, and
the width of the design lane shall be taken as the width of the traffic lane.
▪ Roadway widths from 6000 to 7200 mm (20-24 ft) shall have two design
lanes, each equal to one-half the roadway width.

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 Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

2.2 Multiple Presence of Live Load

The multiple presence factor (m) is needed to investigate the position of
vehicular Live Load, thereby, the design lane width (3600 mm) is
greater than the truck width (3000 mm). So, the (m) factor is depending
on number of loaded lanes (𝑁𝐿) on the roadway of the bridge. It is in
Table 3.6.1.1.2-1 of AASHTO.

2.3. Design Vehicular Live Load

The vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges or incidental structures is

defined by AASHTO specifications, designated HL-93, shall consist of a
combination of the:

▪ Design Truck or design Tandem, and

▪ Design Lane Load.

i. Design Truck: The weights and spacing's of axles and wheels for
the design truck is as specified below. To produce extreme force
effects, the rare axles spacing shall be varied between (4300-9000)
mm (14-30) ft .

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Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

ii. Design Tandem: The design tandem shall consist of a pair of 110
kN (25 kips) axles spaced 1200 mm apart (4 ft). The transverse
spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1800 mm (6 ft).

iii. Design Lane Load: Uniformly distributed load of 3.1 kN/m2 over a
width of 3 m (traffic lane width) or equivalent to 9.3 KN/m (0.64
kips/ft) in the longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane
load is assumed to be uniformly distributed over a width of 3000 mm
(10 ft).

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 Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

Therefore, the load combinations of HL-93 according to AASHTO specifications, are:

3. Dynamic Load Allowance: IM

When a moving vehicle across a bridge at a specific speed, stresses are produced
greater than ones when the vehicle remains static on the bridge. The static effects of
the design truck or tandem, shall be increased by the percentage specified by
AASHTO for dynamic load allowance (𝐼𝑀). The 𝐼𝑀 factor to be applied to the static
load shall be taken as: (1 + 𝐼𝑀).

Note: 𝐼𝑀 shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.

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 Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

Solid Slab Bridge Design

The slab bridge is the simplest system of superstructure and used for short bridges where
the span length is about 15 m or less see Fig. below.

Generally, the slab (deck) carries the traffic and other design loads of the bridge into
abutments (exterior supports) or/and piers (interior supports). Also, the slab behaves as
simply supported, continuous or cantilever span depending on the number and position of
supports. The span length ( S) and thus the main reinforcement of the slabs shall be taken
parallel to traffic direction. The edge beams are to carry curbs, parapets and barriers but
not to carry the slab.

The minimum thickness of slab shall not be less than the values in the Table 2.5.2.6.3-1
as below.

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Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

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 Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

Decks Analysis Methods (Art. 4.6 2):

This shall be applied to the cast in place (CIP) solid or voided concrete slab bridges. The
interior equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with
one lane (𝑬𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 ), or multi lines (𝑬𝑴𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊 ), loaded may be determined as:

𝑬𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 (𝒎𝒎) = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐√𝑳𝟏 𝑾𝟏 (𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆)

𝑾
𝑬𝑴𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊 (𝒎𝒎) = 𝟐𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐√𝑳𝟏 𝑾𝟏 ≤ (𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒔)
𝑵𝑳

where:

𝑬: interior equivalent width (mm)

𝑳𝟏 (𝒎𝒎) = 𝑺 ≤ 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎(𝑵𝑳 ≥ 𝟐, 𝒎𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈)

𝑾𝟏 (𝒎𝒎) = 𝑾 ≤
𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 (𝑵𝑳 = 𝟏, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈)

𝑳𝟏 : modified span length (mm)

𝑾𝟏 : modified edge to edge width of bridge (mm)

𝑾: physical edge to edge width of bridge (mm)

𝑵𝑳 : number of design lanes

𝑾
𝑵𝑳 = 𝑰𝑵𝑻 ( )
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎

Equivalent Edge Strip Width

𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑬𝑬𝒅𝒈𝒆 (𝒎𝒎) = 𝑾𝒆 + 𝟑𝟎𝟎 + ≤ 𝟐
𝟒
𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎

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 Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

Where;
𝑊𝑒 : distance between edge of the deck and the inside face of the barrier (mm)

𝑾𝒊𝒏𝒕 : equivalent width of interior strip for deck (mm).

Note: Slabs designed using the equivalent strip width method may be assumed
to be adequate in shear, but edge beams on slab bridges require shear analysis.

Main Reinforcement

The amount of main reinforcement that required for flexural resistance can be
calculated as:

𝑴
𝑨𝒔 =
𝒇𝒔. 𝒋. 𝒅

Distribution Reinforcement

It is reinforcement shall be placed in the secondary direction in the bottom of

slabs as a percentage of the primary reinforcement as follows:

For primary reinforcement parallel to traffic

𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟎
𝑨𝒔𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒕. 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕 = ≤ 𝟎. 𝟓
√𝑺

For primary reinforcement perpendicular to traffic:

𝟑𝟖𝟒𝟎
𝑨𝒔𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒕. 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕 = ≤ 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕
√𝑺

where:

𝑺 = effective span length (mm)

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 Selected Topics CE426 Prof. Dr. Abdulkhaliq A. Jaafer Lecture
Forth Stage-University of Misan Lecture 2 2

Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement

Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses shall be provided near

surfaces of concrete exposed to daily temperature changes and in structural mass
concrete. Temperature and shrinkage reinforcement to ensure that the total
reinforcement on exposed surfaces is not less than that specified herein.

𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒃 𝒉
𝑨𝒔 ≥
𝟐(𝒃 + 𝒉)𝒇𝒚

𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟑 ≤ 𝑨𝒔 ≤ 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕

Where;

𝑨𝒔 : area of reinforcement in each direction and each face (mm 2/mm)

𝒃: least width of component section (mm)

𝒉: least thickness of component section (mm)

𝒇𝒚 : specified yield strength of reinforcing bars (MPa).

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