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Development and history For other uses, see Morse Code (disambiguation).
Operator proficiency
Morse code is a method used in telecommunication to encode
International Morse code text characters as standardized sequences of two different signal
Representation, timing, durations, called dots and dashes, or dits and dahs.[3][4] Morse
and speeds code is named after Samuel Morse, one of the early developers
of the system adopted for electrical telegraphy.
Learning methods

Letters, numbers, International Morse code encodes the 26 basic Latin letters A
punctuation, prosigns for to Z, one accented Latin letter (É), the Arabic numerals, and a
Morse code and non-Latin small set of punctuation and procedural signals (prosigns). There
variants
is no distinction between upper and lower case letters.[1] Each
Decoding software Morse code symbol is formed by a sequence of dits and dahs.
See also The dit duration can vary for signal clarity and operator skill, but
for any one message, once established it is the basic unit of time
Footnotes
measurement in Morse code. The duration of a dah is three
References times the duration of a dit (although some telegraphers
deliberately exaggerate the length of a dah for clearer
External links
signalling). Each dit or dah within an encoded character is Chart of the Morse code 26 letters and
10 numerals[1]
followed by a period of signal absence, called a space, equal to
the dit duration. The letters of a word are separated by a space of
duration equal to three dits, and words are separated by a space equal
to seven dits.[1][5][a]

Morse code can be memorized and sent in a form perceptible to the

human senses, e.g. via sound waves or visible light, such that it can be
directly interpreted by persons trained in the skill.[7][8] Morse code is
usually transmitted by on-off keying of an information-carrying medium
such as electric current, radio waves, visible light, or sound waves.[9] This Morse key was originally used
[10]
The current or wave is present during the time period of the dit or by Gotthard railway, later by a
dah and absent during the time between dits and dahs.[11][12] shortwave radio amateur[2]

Since many natural languages use more than the 26 letters of the Latin
alphabet, Morse alphabets have been developed for those languages, largely by transliteration of existing
codes.[13]

To increase the efficiency of encoding, Morse code was originally designed so that the length of each symbol is
approximately inverse to the frequency of occurrence of the character that it represents in text of the English
language. Thus the most common letter in English, the letter E, has the shortest code – a single dit. Because
the Morse code elements are specified by proportion rather than specific time durations, the code is usually
transmitted at the highest rate that the receiver is capable of decoding. Morse code transmission rate (speed) is
specified in groups per minute, commonly referred to as words per minute.[b][7]

Development and history

Pre-Morse telegraphs and codes
Early in the nineteenth century, European experimenters made progress
with electrical signaling systems, using a variety of techniques including
static electricity and electricity from Voltaic piles producing electrochemical
and electromagnetic changes. These experimental designs were
precursors to practical telegraphic applications.[14]

Following the discovery of

electromagnetism by Hans
Christian Ørsted in 1820 and
the invention of the
electromagnet by William
Single needle telegraph Sturgeon in 1824, there were
instrument developments in
electromagnetic telegraphy
in Europe and America. Pulses of electric current were sent along
wires to control an electromagnet in the receiving instrument.
Many of the earliest telegraph systems used a single-needle Telegraph key and sounder. The signal is
system which gave a very simple and robust instrument. However, "on" when the knob is pressed, and "off" when
it was slow, as the receiving operator had to alternate between it is released. Length and timing of the dits
and dahs are entirely controlled by the
looking at the needle and writing down the message. In Morse
telegraphist.
code, a deflection of the needle to the left corresponded to a dit
and a deflection to the right to a dah.[15] By making the two clicks
sound different with one ivory and one metal stop, the single needle device became an audible instrument,
which led in turn to the Double Plate Sounder System.[16]

William Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in Britain developed an electrical telegraph that used electromagnets in
its receivers. They obtained an English patent in June 1837 and demonstrated it on the London and
Birmingham Railway, making it the first commercial telegraph. Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Eduard Weber
(1833) as well as Carl August von Steinheil (1837) used codes with varying word lengths for their telegraph
systems.[17] In 1841, Cooke and Wheatstone built a telegraph that printed the letters from a wheel of typefaces
struck by a hammer.[18]:79

Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail

The American artist Samuel Morse, the American physicist Joseph
Henry, and mechanical engineer Alfred Vail developed an electrical
telegraph system. It needed a method to transmit natural language
using only electrical pulses and the silence between them. Around
1837, Morse therefore developed an early forerunner to the modern
International Morse code.[18]:79

The Morse system for telegraphy, which was first used in about 1844,
was designed to make indentations on a paper tape when electric
Morse code receiver, recording on
currents were received. Morse's original telegraph receiver used a
paper tape
mechanical clockwork to move a paper tape. When an electrical
current was received, an electromagnet engaged an armature that
pushed a stylus onto the moving paper tape, making an indentation on the tape. When the current was
interrupted, a spring retracted the stylus and that portion of the moving tape remained unmarked. Morse code
was developed so that operators could translate the indentations marked on the paper tape into text messages.

In his earliest design for a code, Morse had planned to transmit only numerals, and to use a codebook to look
up each word according to the number which had been sent. However, the code was soon expanded by Alfred
Vail in 1840 to include letters and special characters, so it could be used more generally. Vail estimated the
frequency of use of letters in the English language by counting the movable type he found in the type-cases of a
local newspaper in Morristown, New Jersey.[18]:84 The shorter marks were called "dots" and the longer ones
"dashes", and the letters most commonly used were assigned the shortest sequences of dots and dashes. This
code, first used in 1844, became known as Morse landline code, American Morse code, or Railroad Morse, until
the end of railroad telegraphy in the U.S. in the 1970s.[citation needed]

Operator-led change from graphical to audible code

In the original Morse telegraph system, the receiver's armature made a clicking noise as it moved in and out of
position to mark the paper tape. Early telegraph operators soon learned that they could translate the clicks
directly into dots and dashes, and write these down by hand, thus making the paper tape unnecessary. When
Morse code was adapted to radio communication, the dots and dashes were sent as short and long tone
pulses.

Later telegraphy training found that people become more proficient at receiving Morse code when it is taught
"like a language", with each code perceived as a whole "word" instead of a sequence of separate dots and
dashes, such as might shown on a page.[19]

With the advent of tones produced by radiotelegraph receivers, the operators began to vocalize a dot as dit,
and a dash as dah, to reflect the sounds of Morse code they heard. To conform to normal sending speed, dits
▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄
which are not the last element of a code became voiced as di. For example, the letter L ( ) is voiced as
di dah di dit.[20][21] Morse code was sometimes facetiously known as "iddy-umpty", a dit lampooned as "iddy"
and a dah as "umpty", leading to the word "umpteen".[22]

Gerke's refinement of Morse's code

The Morse code, as specified in the current
international standard, International Morse Code
Recommendation, ITU-R M.1677-1,[1] was
derived from a much-improved proposal by
Friedrich Gerke in 1848 that became known as
the "Hamburg alphabet", its only real defect being
▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄
the use of an excessively long code ( and
▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄
later ) for the frequently used vowel 'O'.

Gerke changed many of the codepoints, in the

process doing away with the different length
dashes and different inter-element spaces of
American Morse, leaving only two coding
elements, the dot and the dash. Codes for
German umlauted vowels and CH were introduced.
Gerke's code was adopted in Germany and
Austria in 1851.[23]

This finally led to the International Morse code in

1865. The International Morse code adopted most
of Gerke's codepoints. The codes for O and P were
taken from a code system developed by Steinheil. Comparison of historical versions of Morse code with the
A new codepoint was added for J since Gerke did current standard. Left: Later American Morse code from 1844.[17]
Center: The modified and rationalized version used by Friedrich
not distinguish between I and J. Changes were
Gerke on German railways. Right: Current ITU standard.
also made to X, Y, and Z. This left only four
codepoints identical to the original Morse code,
namely E, H, K and N, and the latter two had their dahs extended to full length. The original American code being
compared dates to 1838; the later American code shown in the table was developed in 1844.[17]

Radiotelegraphy and aviation

In the 1890s, Morse code began to be used extensively for early radio communication before it was possible to
transmit voice. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most high-speed international communication used
Morse code on telegraph lines, undersea cables, and radio circuits.

Although previous transmitters were bulky and the spark gap system of transmission was dangerous and
difficult to use, there had been some early attempts: In 1910, the U.S. Navy experimented with sending Morse
from an airplane.[24] However the first regular aviation radiotelegraphy was on airships, which had space to
accommodate the large, heavy radio equipment then in use. The same year, 1910, a radio on the airship
America was instrumental in coordinating the rescue of its crew.[25]

During World War I, Zeppelin airships equipped with radio were used for bombing and naval scouting,[26] and
ground-based radio direction finders were used for airship navigation.[26] Allied airships and military aircraft also
made some use of radiotelegraphy.

However, there was little aeronautical radio in general use during World War I, and in the 1920s, there was no
radio system used by such important flights as that of Charles Lindbergh from New York to Paris in 1927. Once
he and the Spirit of St. Louis were off the ground, Lindbergh was truly incommunicado and alone. Morse code
in aviation began regular use in the mid-1920s. By 1928, when the first airplane flight was made by the
Southern Cross from California to Australia, one of its four crewmen was a radio operator who communicated
with ground stations via radio telegraph.

Beginning in the 1930s, both civilian and military pilots were required to be able to use Morse code, both for use
with early communications systems and for identification of navigational beacons that transmitted continuous
two- or three-letter identifiers in Morse code. Aeronautical charts show the identifier of each navigational aid
next to its location on the map.

In addition, rapidly moving field armies could not have fought effectively without radiotelegraphy; they moved
more quickly than their communications services could put up new telegraph and telephone lines. This was
seen especially in the blitzkrieg offensives of the Nazi German Wehrmacht in Poland, Belgium, France (in
1940), the Soviet Union, and in North Africa; by the British Army in North Africa, Italy, and the Netherlands; and
by the U.S. Army in France and Belgium (in 1944), and in southern Germany in 1945.

Maritime flash telegraphy and radio telegraphy

Radiotelegraphy using Morse code was vital during World War II,
especially in carrying messages between the warships and the naval
bases of the belligerents. Long-range ship-to-ship communication was
by radio telegraphy, using encrypted messages because the voice
radio systems on ships then were quite limited in both their range and
their security. Radiotelegraphy was also extensively used by
warplanes, especially by long-range patrol planes that were sent out by
those navies to scout for enemy warships, cargo ships, and troop A U.S. Navy Morse Code training
class in 2015. The sailors will use their
ships.
new skills to collect signals intelligence.

Morse code was used as an international standard for maritime

distress until 1999 when it was replaced by the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System. When the French
Navy ceased using Morse code on January 31, 1997, the final message transmitted was "Calling all. This is our
last call before our eternal silence."[27]

Demise of commercial telegraphy

In the United States the final commercial Morse code transmission was on July 12, 1999, signing off with
Samuel Morse's original 1844 message, WHAT HATH GOD WROUGHT, and the prosign SK ("end of contact").[28]

As of 2015, the United States Air Force still trains ten people a year in Morse.[29]

The United States Coast Guard has ceased all use of Morse code on the radio, and no longer monitors any
radio frequencies for Morse code transmissions, including the international medium frequency (MF) distress
frequency of 500 kHz.[30] However, the Federal Communications Commission still grants commercial
radiotelegraph operator licenses to applicants who pass its code and written tests.[31] Licensees have
reactivated the old California coastal Morse station KPH and regularly transmit from the site under either this
call sign or as KSM. Similarly, a few U.S. museum ship stations are operated by Morse enthusiasts.[32]

Operator proficiency
Morse code speed is measured in words per minute (WPM) or
characters per minute (CPM). Characters have differing lengths because
they contain differing numbers of dits and dahs. Consequently, words
also have different lengths in terms of dot duration, even when they
contain the same number of characters. For this reason, some
standard word is adopted for measuring operators' transmission
speeds: Two such standard words in common use are PARIS and CODEX.
[33]
Operators skilled in Morse code can often understand ("copy") code A commercially manufactured iambic
in their heads at rates in excess of 40 WPM. paddle used in conjunction with an
electronic keyer to generate high-speed
In addition to knowing, understanding, and being able to copy the Morse code, the timing of which is
controlled by the electronic keyer.[c]
standard written alpha-numeric and punctuation characters or symbols
at high speeds, skilled high speed operators must also be fully
knowledgeable of all of the special unwritten Morse code symbols for the standard Prosigns for Morse code and
the meanings of these special procedural signals in standard Morse code communications protocol.

International contests in code copying are still occasionally held. In July 1939 at a contest in Asheville, North
Carolina in the United States Ted R. McElroy (W1JYN) set a still-standing record for Morse copying, 75.2 WPM.[34]
Pierpont (2004) also notes that some operators may have passed 100 WPM.[34] By this time, they are "hearing"
phrases and sentences rather than words. The fastest speed ever sent by a straight key was achieved in 1942
by Harry Turner (W9YZE) (d. 1992) who reached 35 WPM in a demonstration at a U.S. Army base. To accurately
compare code copying speed records of different eras it is useful to keep in mind that different standard words
(50 dit durations versus 60 dit durations) and different interword gaps (5 dit durations versus 7 dit durations)
may have been used when determining such speed records. For example, speeds run with the CODEX standard
word and the PARIS standard may differ by up to 20%.

Today among amateur operators there are several organizations that recognize high-speed code ability, one
group consisting of those who can copy Morse at 60 WPM.[35] Also, Certificates of Code Proficiency are issued
by several amateur radio societies, including the American Radio Relay League. Their basic award starts at
10 WPM with endorsements as high as 40 WPM, and are available to anyone who can copy the transmitted text.
Members of the Boy Scouts of America may put a Morse interpreter's strip on their uniforms if they meet the
standards for translating code at 5 WPM.

Through May 2013, the First, Second, and Third Class (commercial)
Radiotelegraph Licenses using code tests based upon the CODEX standard word
were still being issued in the United States by the Federal Communications
Commission. The First Class license required 20 WPM code group and 25 WPM
text code proficiency, the others 16 WPM code group test (five letter blocks sent
as simulation of receiving encrypted text) and 20 WPM code text (plain
language) test. It was also necessary to pass written tests on operating
practice and electronics theory. A unique additional demand for the First Class
was a requirement of a year of experience for operators of shipboard and coast
stations using Morse. This allowed the holder to be chief operator on board a
passenger ship. However, since 1999 the use of satellite and very high-
A U.S. Navy signalman
sends Morse code signals in frequency maritime communications systems (GMDSS) has made them
2005. obsolete. (By that point meeting experience requirement for the First was very
difficult.)

Currently, only one class of license, the Radiotelegraph Operator License, is issued. This is granted either when
the tests are passed or as the Second and First are renewed and become this lifetime license. For new
applicants, it requires passing a written examination on electronic theory and radiotelegraphy practices, as well
as 16 WPM code-group and 20 WPM text tests. However, the code exams are currently waived for holders of
Amateur Extra Class licenses who obtained their operating privileges under the old 20 WPM test requirement.

International Morse code

Morse codes of one version or another have been in use for more than 160 years — longer than any other
electrical message encoding system. What is called Morse code today is actually somewhat different from what
was originally developed by Vail and Morse. The Modern International Morse code, or continental code, was
created by Friedrich Clemens Gerke in 1848 and initially used for telegraphy between Hamburg and Cuxhaven
in Germany. Gerke changed nearly half of the alphabet and all of the numerals, providing the foundation for the
modern form of the code. After some minor changes to the letters and a complete revision of the numerals,
International Morse Code was standardized by the International Telegraphy Congress in 1865 in Paris, and later
became the standard adopted by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Morse and Vail's final code
specification, however, was only really used only for land-line telegraphy in the United States and Canada, with
the International code used everywhere else, including all ships at sea and sailing in North American waters.
Morse's version became known as American Morse code or railroad code, and is now almost never used, with
the possible exception of historical re-enactments.

Aviation
In aviation, pilots use radio navigation aids. To ensure that the stations
the pilots are using are serviceable, the stations transmit a set of
identification letters (usually a two-to-five-letter version of the station
name) in Morse code. Station identification letters are shown on air
navigation charts. For example, the VOR-DME based at Vilo Acuña
Airport in Cayo Largo del Sur, Cuba is identified by "UCL", and Morse
code UCL is repeatedly transmitted on its radio frequency.

In some countries, during periods of maintenance, the facility may

▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄
instead transmit the signal TEST ( ) or the identification may Cayo Largo Del Sur VOR-DME.
be removed, which tells pilots and navigators that the station is
unreliable. In Canada, the identification is removed entirely to signify
the navigation aid is not to be used.[36][37]

In the aviation service, Morse is typically sent at a very slow speed of about 5 words per minute. In the U.S.,
pilots do not actually have to know Morse to identify the transmitter because the dot/dash sequence is written
out next to the transmitter's symbol on aeronautical charts. Some modern navigation receivers automatically
translate the code into displayed letters.

Amateur radio 0:13

International Morse code today is most popular among amateur radio The sound of non directional beacon
WG, on 248 kHz, located at
operators, in the mode commonly referred to as "continuous wave" or
49.8992 North, 97.349197 West,[38]
"CW".[e] Other, faster keying methods are available in radio telegraphy,
near Winnipeg's main airport
such as frequency-shift keying (FSK).

The original amateur radio operators used Morse code exclusively

since voice-capable radio transmitters did not become commonly
available until around 1920. Until 2003, the International
Telecommunication Union mandated Morse code proficiency as part of
the amateur radio licensing procedure worldwide. However, the World
Radiocommunication Conference of 2003 made the Morse code
requirement for amateur radio licensing optional.[39] Many countries
subsequently removed the Morse requirement from their licence
Vibroplex brand semiautomatic key[d]
[40]
requirements. (informally called a "bug" since it
vaguely resembles a stick insect).
Until 1991, a demonstration of the ability to send and receive Morse
code at a minimum of five words per minute (WPM) was required to
receive an amateur radio license for use in the United States from the
Federal Communications Commission. Demonstration of this ability
was still required for the privilege to use the shortwave bands. Until
2000, proficiency at the 20 WPM level was required to receive the
highest level of amateur license (Amateur Extra Class); effective April
15, 2000, in the FCC reduced the Extra Class requirement to 5 WPM.[41]
Morse code recorded on the
Finally, effective on February 23, 2007, the FCC eliminated the Morse
40 meter ham radio band (31 sec).
code proficiency requirements from all amateur radio licenses.

While voice and data transmissions are limited to specific amateur radio bands under U.S. rules, Morse code is
permitted on all amateur bands: LF, MF low, MF high, HF, VHF, and UHF. In some countries, certain portions of
the amateur radio bands are reserved for transmission of Morse code signals only.

Because Morse code transmissions employ an on-off keyed radio signal, it requires less complex equipment
than other radio transmission modes. Morse code also uses less bandwidth (typically only 100–150 Hz wide,
although only for a slow data rate) than voice communication (roughly 2,400~2,800 Hz used by SSB voice).

Morse code is usually received as a high-pitched audio tone, so transmissions are easier to copy than voice
through the noise on congested frequencies, and it can be used in very high noise / low signal environments.
The fact that the transmitted power is concentrated into a very limited bandwidth makes it possible to use
narrow receiver filters, which suppress or eliminate interference on nearby frequencies. The narrow signal
bandwidth also takes advantage of the natural aural selectivity of the human brain, further enhancing weak
signal readability.[citation needed] This efficiency makes CW extremely useful for DX (long distance) transmissions,
as well as for low-power transmissions (commonly called "QRP operation", from the Q-code for "reduce
power"). There are several amateur clubs that require solid high speed copy, the highest of these has a
standard of 60 WPM. The American Radio Relay League offers a code proficiency certification program that
starts at 10 WPM.

The relatively limited speed at which Morse code can be sent led to the development of an extensive number of
abbreviations to speed communication. These include prosigns, Q codes, and a set of Morse code
abbreviations for typical message components. For example, CQ is broadcast to be interpreted as "seek you"
(I'd like to converse with anyone who can hear my signal). The abbreviations OM (old man), YL (young lady), and
XYL ("ex-young lady" – wife) are common. YL or OM is used by an operator when referring to the other operator
(regardless of their actual age), and XYL or OM (rather than the expected XYM) is used by an operator when
referring to his or her spouse. QTH is "transmitting location" (spoken "my Q.T.H." is "my location"). The use of
abbreviations for common terms permits conversation even when the operators speak different languages.

Although the traditional telegraph key (straight key) is still used by some amateurs, the use of mechanical semi-
automatic keyers[d] (informally called "bugs"), and of fully automatic electronic keyers (called "single paddle"
and either "double-paddle" or "iambic" keys) is prevalent today. Software is also frequently employed to produce
and decode Morse code radio signals. The ARRL has a readability standard for robot encoders called ARRL
Farnsworth spacing[42] that is supposed to have higher readability for both robot and human decoders. Some
programs like WinMorse[43] have implemented the standard.

Other uses
Radio navigation aids such as VORs and NDBs for aeronautical use broadcast identifying information in the
form of Morse Code, though many VOR stations now also provide voice identification.[44] Warships, including
those of the U.S. Navy, have long used signal lamps to exchange messages in Morse code. Modern use
continues, in part, as a way to communicate while maintaining radio silence.

Automatic Transmitter Identification System (ATIS) uses Morse code to identify uplink sources of analog
satellite transmissions.

Many amateur radio repeaters identify with Morse, even though they are used for voice communications.

Applications for the general public

An important application is signalling for help through SOS,
▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄
Representation of Morse code SOS. " ". This can be sent many ways: keying a radio on
and off, flashing a mirror, toggling a flashlight, and similar
methods. The SOS signal is not sent as three separate
characters; rather, it is a prosign SOS, and is keyed without gaps between characters.[45]

Some Nokia mobile phones offer an option to alert the user of an incoming text message with the Morse tone
" (representing SMS or Short Message Service).[46] In addition, applications are now available for
▄ ▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄
"
mobile phones that enable short messages to be input in Morse Code.[47]

Morse code as an assistive technology

Morse code has been employed as an assistive technology, helping people with a variety of disabilities to
communicate.[48][49][f][51] For example, the Android operating system versions 5.0 and higher allow users to
input text using Morse Code as an alternative to a keypad or handwriting recognition.[52]

Morse can be sent by persons with severe motion disabilities, as long as they have some minimal motor
control. An original solution to the problem that caretakers have to learn to decode has been an electronic
typewriter with the codes written on the keys. Codes were sung by users; see the voice typewriter employing
Morse or votem.[53]

Morse code can also be translated by computer and used in a speaking communication aid. In some cases, this
means alternately blowing into and sucking on a plastic tube ("sip-and-puff" interface). An important advantage
of Morse code over row column scanning is that once learned, it does not require looking at a display. Also, it
appears faster than scanning.

In one case reported in the radio amateur magazine QST,[54] an old shipboard radio operator who had a stroke
and lost the ability to speak or write could communicate with his physician (a radio amateur) by blinking his
eyes in Morse. Two examples of communication in intensive care units were also published in QST magazine.
[55][56]
Another example occurred in 1966 when prisoner of war Jeremiah Denton, brought on television by his
North Vietnamese captors, Morse-blinked the word TORTURE. In these two cases, interpreters were available to
understand those series of eye-blinks.

Representation, timing, and speeds

International Morse code is composed of five A sample Morse code transmission
[1]:§3
elements: 0:54

▄
1. short mark, dot or dit ( ): "dit duration" is one time The text "Welcome to Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia that anyone can edit." sent as
unit long Morse code at 13 WPM.
▄▄▄
2. long mark, dash or dah ( ): three time units long Problems playing this file? See media help.
3. inter-element gap between the dits and dahs
Morse code A–Z
within a character: one dot duration or one unit
0:41
long
4. short gap (between letters): three time units long ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
in Morse code at 8 WPM.
5. medium gap (between words): seven time units
Problems playing this file? See media help.
long (formerly five[6])
This section includes inline
Transmission links to audio files. If you
have trouble playing the files,
Morse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: Originally as see Wikipedia Media help.
electrical pulses along a telegraph wire, but later extended to an audio
tone, a radio signal with short and long tones, or high and low tones, or as a mechanical, audible, or visual
signal (e.g. a flashing light) using devices like an Aldis lamp or a heliograph, a common flashlight, or even a car
horn. Some mine rescues have used pulling on a rope - a short pull for a dot and a long pull for a dah.

Morse messages are generally transmitted by a hand-operated device such as a telegraph key, so there are
variations introduced by the skill of the sender and receiver — more experienced operators can send and
receive at faster speeds. In addition, individual operators differ slightly, for example, using slightly longer or
shorter dahs or gaps, perhaps only for particular characters. This is called their "fist", and experienced
operators can recognize specific individuals by it alone. A good operator who sends clearly and is easy to copy
is said to have a "good fist". A "poor fist" is a characteristic of sloppy or hard to copy Morse code.

Digital storage

Morse code is transmitted using just two states (on and off). Morse code may be represented as a binary code,
and that is what telegraph operators do when transmitting messages. Working from the above ITU definition
and further defining a bit as a dot time, a Morse code sequence may be crudely represented a combination of
the following five bit-strings:

▄
1. short mark, dot or dit ( ): '1'b
▄▄▄
2. longer mark, dash or dah ( ): '111'b
3. intra-character gap (between the dits and dahs within a character): 0
4. short gap (between letters): '000'b
5. medium gap (between words): '0000000'b

Note that the marks and gaps alternate: Dits and dahs are always separated by one of the gaps, and that the
gaps are always separated by a dit or a dah.

A more efficient binary encoding uses only two-bits for each dit or dah element, with the 1 dit-length pause that
must follow after each automatically included for every 2 bit code. One possible coding is by number value for
the length of signal tone sent one could use '01'b for a dit and the automatic single-dit pause after it, and '11'b
for a dah and the automatic single-dit following pause, and '00'b for the extra pause between letters (in effect,
an end-of-letter mark). That leaves the code '10'b available for some other purpose, such as an escape
character, or to more compactly represent the extra space between words (an end-of-word mark) instead of '00
00 00'b (only 6 dit lengths, since the 7th is automatically inserted as part of the prior dit or dah). Although the dit
and inter-letter pauses work out to be the same, for any letter containing a dah, the two-bit encoding uses digital
memory more compactly than the direct-conversion bit strings mentioned above. Including the letter-separating
spaces, all International Morse letter codes pack into 12 bits or less (5 symbols), and most fit into 10 bits or less
(4 symbols); most of the procedural signs fit into 14 bits, with a few only needing 12 bits (5 symbols); and all
digits require exactly 12 bits.

▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄
For example, Morse G ( + 2 extra empty dits for "end of letter") would binary-encode as '11'b, '11'b, '01'b,
'00'b; when packed it is '1111 0100'b = 'F4'x, which stores into only one byte (two nibbles) (as does every three-
element code). The bit encoding for the longer method mentioned earlier the same letter would encode as
'1110'b, '1110'b, '1000'b = '1110 1110 1000'b = 'EE8'x, or one-and-a-half bytes (three nibbles). The space saving
allows small devices, like portable memory keyers, to have more and longer International Morse code
sequences in small, conventional device-driver microprocessors' RAM chips.

Cable code
The very long time constants of 19th and early 20th century submarine communications cables required a
different form of Morse signalling. Instead of keying a voltage on and off for varying times, the dits and dahs
were represented by two polarities of voltage impressed on the cable, for a uniform time.[57]

Timing
Below is an illustration of timing conventions. The phrase MORSE CODE, in Morse code format, would normally be
written something like this, where – represents dahs and · represents dits:

−− −−− ·−· ··· · −·−· −−− −·· ·

M O R S E C O D E

Next is the exact conventional timing for this phrase, with ▓ representing "signal on", and ˽ representing
"signal off", each for the time length of exactly one dit:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
12345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789012345678901234567890123456789

———M——— —————O————— ———R——— ——S—— E —————C————— —————O————— ———D——— E

▓▓▓˽▓▓▓˽˽˽▓▓▓˽▓▓▓˽▓▓▓˽˽˽▓˽▓▓▓˽▓˽˽˽▓˽▓˽▓˽˽˽▓˽˽˽˽˽˽˽▓▓▓˽▓˽▓▓▓˽▓˽˽˽▓▓▓˽▓▓▓˽▓▓▓˽˽˽▓▓▓˽▓˽▓˽˽˽▓
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
| dah dit | |
symbol space letter space word space

Spoken representation
Morse code is often spoken or written with dah for dashes, dit for dots located at the end of a character, and di
for dots located at the beginning or internally within the character. Thus, the following Morse code sequence:

M O R S E C O D E
−− −−− ·−· ··· · (space) −·−· −−− −·· ·

is spoken (or sung):

Dah dah dah dah dah di dah dit di di dit dit, Dah di dah dit dah dah dah dah di dit dit.

For use on radio, there is little point in learning to read written Morse as above; rather, the sounds of all of the
letters and symbols need to be learned, for both sending and receiving.

Speed in words per minute

All Morse code elements depend on the dot / dit length. A dah is the length of 3 dits (with no gaps between),
and spacings are specified in number of dit lengths. An unambiguous method of specifying the transmission
speed is to specify the dit duration as, for example, 50 milliseconds.

Specifying the dit duration is, however, not the common practice. Usually, speeds are stated in words per
minute. That introduces ambiguity because words have different numbers of characters, and characters have
different dit lengths. It is not immediately clear how a specific word rate determines the dit duration in
milliseconds.

Some method to standardize the transformation of a word rate to a dit duration is useful. A simple way to do this
is to choose a dit duration that would send a typical word the desired number of times in one minute. If, for
example, the operator wanted a character speed of 13 words per minute, the operator would choose a dit rate
that would send the typical word 13 times in exactly one minute.

The typical word thus determines the dit length. It is common to assume that a word is 5 characters long. There
are two common typical words: PARIS and CODEX. PARIS mimics a word rate that is typical of natural language
words and reflects the benefits of Morse code's shorter code durations for common characters such as E and T.
CODEX offers a word rate that is typical of 5 letter code groups (sequences of random letters). Using the word
PARIS as a standard, the number of dit units is 50 and a simple calculation shows that the dit length at 20 words
per minute is 60 milliseconds. Using the word CODEX with 60 dit units, the dit length at 20 words per minute is
50 milliseconds.

Because Morse code is usually sent by hand, it is unlikely that an operator could be that precise with the dit
length, and the individual characteristics and preferences of the operators usually override the standards.

For commercial radiotelegraph licenses in the United States, the Federal Communications Commission
specifies tests for Morse code proficiency in words per minute and in code groups per minute.
[58]:§13.207(c), §13.209(d)
The FCC specifies that a "word" is 5 characters long. The Commission specifies Morse
code test elements at 16 code groups per minute, 20 words per minute, 20 code groups per minute, and
25 words per minute.[58]:§13.203(b) The word per minute rate would be close to the PARIS standard, and the code
groups per minute would be close to the CODEX standard.

While the Federal Communications Commission no longer requires Morse code for amateur radio licenses, the
old requirements were similar to the requirements for commercial radiotelegraph licenses.[58]:§97.503, 1996

A difference between amateur radio licenses and commercial radiotelegraph licenses is that commercial
operators must be able to receive code groups of random characters along with plain language text. For each
class of license, the code group speed requirement is slower than the plain language text requirement. For
example, for the Radiotelegraph Operator License, the examinee must pass a 20 word per minute plain text test
and a 16 word per minute code group test.[31]

Based upon a 50 dit duration standard word such as PARIS, the time for one dit duration or one unit can be
computed by the formula:

where: T is the unit time, or dit duration in milliseconds, and W is the speed in WPM.

High-speed telegraphy contests are held; according to the Guinness Book of Records in June 2005 at the
International Amateur Radio Union's 6th World Championship in High Speed Telegraphy in Primorsko, Bulgaria,
Andrei Bindasov of Belarus transmitted 230 Morse code marks of mixed text in one minute.[59]

Farnsworth speed
Sometimes, especially while teaching Morse code, the timing rules above are changed so two different speeds
are used: A character speed and a text speed. The character speed is how fast each individual letter is sent.
The text speed is how fast the entire message is sent. For example, individual characters may be sent at a 13
words-per-minute rate, but the intercharacter and interword gaps may be lengthened so the word rate is only
5 words per minute.

Using different character and text speeds is, in fact, a common practice, and is used in the Farnsworth method
of learning Morse code.

Alternative display of common characters in International Morse code

See also: Huffman coding

Some methods of teaching Morse code use a dichotomic search table.

International Morse code binary search tree: The graph branches left for each dit and right for each dah until the character representation is
reached. Official ITU codes are shown as black letters on dark grey, and are complete, including punctuation; some non-ITU extensions are in
grey letters on light grey, but are not exhaustive. ITU prosigns are circled in red with red text; unofficial prosigns are orange.

Learning methods
People learning Morse code using the Farnsworth method are taught to send and receive letters and other
symbols at their full target speed, that is with normal relative timing of the dits, dahs, and spaces within each
symbol for that speed. The Farnsworth method is named for Donald R. "Russ" Farnsworth, also known by his
call sign, W6TTB. However, initially exaggerated spaces between symbols and words are used, to give
"thinking time" to make the sound "shape" of the letters and symbols easier to learn. The spacing can then be
reduced with practice and familiarity.

Another popular teaching method is the Koch method, invented in 1935 by the German engineer and former
stormtrooper Ludwig Koch,[60] which uses the full target speed from the outset but begins with just two
characters. Once strings containing those two characters can be copied with 90% accuracy, an additional
character is added, and so on until the full character set is mastered.

In North America, many thousands of individuals have increased their code recognition speed (after initial
memorization of the characters) by listening to the regularly scheduled code practice transmissions broadcast
by W1AW, the American Radio Relay League's headquarters station.[61] As of 2015, the United States military
taught Morse code as an 81-day self-paced course, having phased out more traditional classes.[62]

Mnemonics
Main article: Morse code mnemonics

Visual mnemonic charts have been devised over the ages. Baden-
Powell included one in the Girl Guides handbook[63] in 1918.

In the United Kingdom, many people learned the Morse code by means
of a series of words or phrases that have the same rhythm as a Morse
character. For instance, Q in Morse is dah dah di dah , which can be
memorized by the phrase "God Save the Queen", and the Morse for F
is di di dah dit , which can be memorized as "Did she like it?"[g]
Scout movement founder Baden-
Powell's mnemonic chart from 1918

Letters, numbers, punctuation, prosigns for Morse code and non-Latin

variants

Category Character Code

▄ ▄▄▄ ⓘ
Letters A, a
▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ⓘ
Letters B, b
▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ⓘ
Letters C, c
▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ⓘ
Letters D, d
▄ ⓘ
Letters E, e
▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ⓘ
Letters F, f
▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ⓘ
Letters G, g
▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ⓘ
Letters H, h
▄ ▄ ⓘ
Letters I, i
▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ⓘ
Letters J, j
▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ⓘ
Letters K, k

Prosign for general invitation to transmit

▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄ ⓘ
Letters L, l
▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ⓘ
Letters M, m
▄▄▄ ▄ ⓘ
Letters N, n
▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ⓘ
Letters O, o
▄ ▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ⓘ
Letters P, p
▄▄▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ▄▄▄ ⓘ
Letters Q, q
▄ ▄▄▄ ▄ ⓘ
Letters R, r
▄ ▄ ▄ ⓘ
Letters S, s
▄▄▄ ⓘ
Letters T, t