Chapter 12

OPTICAL NETWORKING

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Fig. 12.1.1. Illustration of a data communication network. A, B, C, D … are network nodes and a, b, c, d … are users.

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Fig. 12.1.2. Illustration of physical layer configuration and its relation to higher network layers

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Fig. 12.1.3. Illustration of point-to-point, bus, ring, star, tree, and mesh topologies of networking.

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Fig. 12.1.4. Configuration of a folded bus connecting N users.

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Fig. 12.1.5. (A) Transmission loss between TxN and RxN−1 as the function of ɛ calculated with the user number N=5, 10, 20, and 30.
(B) Optimum coupling coefficient of couplers (left y-axis) and minimum transmission loss between TxN and RxN−1 (right y-axis) as the
function of N.

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Fig. 12.1.6. Configuration of a unidirectional ring connecting N users.

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Fig. 12.1.7. (A) Transmission loss between Tx1 and RxN as the function of ɛ calculated with the number of users N=5, 10, 20, and 30.
(B) Optimum coupling coefficient of couplers (left y-axis) and minimum transmission loss between TxN and RxN−1 (right y-axis) as the
function of N.

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Fig. 12.1.8. (A) Configuration of a star network based on an N×N star coupler, and (B) splitting loss of the star coupler as the
function of N.

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Fig. 12.1.9. Two examples of 16×16 star network based on the combination of 3dB directional couplers in four layers
(A) and six layers (B).

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Fig. 12.1.10. Bidirectional double ring configuration. The dotted line is the normal path from node 1 to node x. If there is a fiber cut in the
clockwise ring, the path is switched to the solid line through the counter-clockwise ring.

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Fig. 12.1.11. (A) Optical network node based on WDM couplers to avoid intrinsic splitting loss, and (B) an n×n star network with
wavelength tunable transmitters.

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Fig. 12.1.12. Definitions of SONET/SDH layers.

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Fig. 12.1.13. STS-1 frame structure.

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Fig. 12.1.14. STS-N frame structure.

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Fig. 12.1.15. IP in the layered hierarchy.

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Fig. 12.1.16. Example of routing a packet from router 1 to router 8. Solid arrows: actual routing paths, and dashed arrows: possible
routing paths.

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Fig. 12.1.17. An IP packet structure.

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Fig. 12.2.1. Categories of optical networks: WAN: wide-area network, MAN: Metro-area network, LAN: local-area network.

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Fig. 12.2.2. Dedicated (A) and shared (B) protection schemes. Solid lines: working channels, dashed lines: protection channels.

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Fig. 12.2.3. Dedicated (A) and shared (B) protection schemes for transmitters (TX) and receivers (RX).

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Fig. 12.2.4. (A) Configuration of unidirectional path-switched rings (UPSR) with self-healing protection functionality and (B) configuration
of each node. Solid line: working links and dashed line: protection links.

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Fig. 12.2.5. UPSR fault protection against fiber cut (at 6w and 6p), or node failure (node 6).

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Fig. 12.2.6. (A) Configuration of bidirectional line-switched rings (BLSR) with self-healing protection functionality, and (B) configuration of
each node. Solid line: working links and dashed line: protection links.

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Fig. 12.3.1. Basic optical configurations of PON including (A) direct fiber connection between OLT and each user, (B) TDM-PON,
and (C) WDM-PON.

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Fig. 12.3.2. Illustration of TDM-PON and frame scheduling.

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Fig. 12.3.3. Block diagrams of (A) OLT, and (B) ONU in a TDM-PON, (C) an image of OLT, (D) image of a fiber 1×16 star coupler,
(E) an image of ONU. (C) Used with permission from Huawei SmartAX MA5800.

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Fig. 12.3.4. Overlay of 1550nm analog TV broadcast on a TDM-PON.

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Fig. 12.3.5. Configuration of a WDM-PON based on the TDM-PON infrastructure, (that is wavelength independent power splitter).

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Fig. 12.3.6. Configuration of a WDM-PON based on WDM coupler.

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Fig. 12.3.7. Block diagrams of (A) OLT, and (B) ONU in a WDM-PON.

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Fig. 12.3.8. Block diagrams of a hybrid TDM-WDM-PON.

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Fig. 12.4.1. High-speed active optical cable (AOC).

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Fig. 12.4.2. Free-space optical interconnects between printed circuit boards (A) and between computer servers (B).

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Fig. 12.4.3. Examples of optical interconnections inter-chips on a PCB board (A) and intra-chip (B) (Shen et al., 2014).

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Fig. 12.4.4. (A) Trend of global datacenter traffic increase between 2015 and 2020, and (B) prediction of percentages of data traffic within
datacenters, between datacenters and between datacenter and users for year 2020 (Barnett et al., 2016).

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Fig. 12.4.5. (A) Breakdown of applications of datacenter traffic predicted for year 2020 and (B) data stored in datacenters
(Barnett et al., 2016).

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Fig. 12.4.6. Datacenter network architecture based on three-layer tree topology. ToR: Top-of-Rack.

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Fig. 12.4.7. Example of datacenter network based on optical interconnection.

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Fig. 12.4.8. Datacenter network based both inter-rack and intra-rack optical interconnection with dynamic traffic adjustment.

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Fig. 12.4.9. Hybrid architecture with the combination of electronic packet switch and optical circuit switch. T/R: optical transceiver,
WDM: WDM MUX and DEMUX depending on the directions. All fiber links are bidirectional.

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Fig. 12.4.10. Modular DCN based on HELIOS architecture interconnecting multiple PODs. T/R: optical transceiver, WDM: WDM MUX
and DEMUX depending on the directions. All fiber links are bidirectional.

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Fig. 12.5.1. (A) Configuration of an optical add/drop multiplexer, which can be reconfigurable (ROADM) by using a 2×2 optical switch
shown in (B) for each wavelength channel, or non-reconfigurable (OADM) by using optical circulators as shown in (C).

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Fig. 12.5.2. ROADM with pre-grouped channels and express paths. WSS can be used to replace DEMUX and MUX for flexible channel
selection and grouping.

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Fig. 12.5.3. OADM in series configurations based on FBGs (A) and 2×2 WDM couplers (B).

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Fig. 12.5.4. (A) Illustration of WSS functionality and (B) ROADM based on WSS.

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Fig. 12.5.5. A wavelength-space hybrid optical switching node which has m optical input ports each carrying n WDM channels.

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Fig. 12.5.6. A (m×n)×(m×n) wavelength-space hybrid optical switching node using n×(m×m)crossbar switches, and each switch is
dedicated to a specific wavelength.

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Fig. 12.5.7. (A) A lightpath across k+1 OXC switching nodes and k fiber hops, and (B) blocking probabilities as the function of wavelength
utilization efficiency η with and without the capability of wavelength conversion for k=10 hops. Three different number of wavelengths are
used with F=20 (dotted lines), F=50 (solid lines), and F=100 (dash-dotted lines).

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Fig. 12.5.8. (A) Illustration of fixed (top) and flexible (bottom) grid and the impact in the multiplexing of channels with different spectral
bandwidths and (B) elastic network based on bandwidth variable transceivers (BVT) and WSSs.

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Fig. 12.5.9. Structure of an optical packet.

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Fig. 12.5.10. Illustration of optical packet routing through intermediate nodes and routing tables (only show routing tables for nodes 1, 3,
4, 5, and 7).

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Fig. 12.5.11. Configuration of an optical packet switching node with optical overhead extracting and label swapping.

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Fig. 12.6.1. Block diagram of a digital cross-connect switching node.

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Fig. 12.6.2. Combination of optical cross connect (OXC) and digital subcarrier cross-connect (DSXC).

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Fig. 12.6.3. (A) wireless fronthaul and (B) block diagram of DSCM-based fronthaul. BBU: Baseband Unit, and RRH: Remote Radio Head.

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Fig. 12.6.4. DSP process of an 8×8 DSXC to cross-connect switch subcarrier channel.

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Fig. 12.6.5. Input (A) and output [(B) and (C)] spectra of an 8×8 DSXC indicating any-to-any switching capability. The bottom row shows
the typical constellation diagrams of QPSK and 16QAM after cross-connect switching.

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