Analog and Digital Communication Lab

Laboratory report submitted for the partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
in
Electronics and Communication Engineering

by

Student Name: Nishit Luhadia

Roll No.: 23UCC579

Course Coordinator
Dr. Anirudh Agrawal/ Dr. Harish Kumar Kumawat/ Dr. Akash Gupta
Dr. Vaibhav Kumar Gupta/ Dr. Navneet Upadhyay (ECE)
Or
Dr. Gurinder Singh (CCE)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

The LNM Institute of Information Technology, Jaipur

January 2025
Copyright © The LNMIIT 2025
All Rights Reserved
 Contents

Chapter Page

1 Experiment No. - 01............................................................................................................................1

1.1 AIM............................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Apparatus Used..........................................................................................................................1
1.3 Theory........................................................................................................................................1
1.3.1 Fourier Series.................................................................................................................1
1.3.2 Circuit operation............................................................................................................2
1.3.2.1 For duty cycle ≤ 50%...................................................................................2
1.3.2.2 For duty cycle ≥ 50%...................................................................................3
1.4 Observations...............................................................................................................................3
1.4.1 Calculation.....................................................................................................................3
1.4.2 Observation Table..........................................................................................................3
1.5 Result Screenshots......................................................................................................................3
1.6 Conclusions................................................................................................................................4
1.7 Precautions.................................................................................................................................4

iii
 Chapter 1

Experiment No. - 01

1.1 AIM

1. To generate periodic rectangular signals of varying duty cycles (10%, 30%, 50%, and 75%).

2. Observe the Fourier domain representation of the above generated periodic signals.

3. Observe the change in spectrum of the signals when passed through an integrator/low-pass R-C
filter.

1.2 Apparatus Used

1. 555 Timer IC 3. Resistors 5. Capacitors 7. Breadboard

2. DC Power Supply +5 Volts 4. Digital Storage Oscilloscope 6. Connecting Wires

1.3 Theory

1.3.1 Fourier Series:

Fourier Series: We know that continuous time periodic signals1 are represented by the Fourier series. The
Fourier series of a signal x(t) with fundamental time period T and fundamental frequency ω0 = 2π T
is given by following
expression:
x(t) = Σ X(k)ejkω0t (1.1)
∞

k=−∞

where the series coefficients are 1∫

X(k) = x(t)e−jkω0tdt. (1.2)
T T

A sinusoid of frequency kω0 is called the kth harmonic of the sinusoid of fundamental frequency ω0.
Signal x(t) with period T and amplitude 5V is shown in the Figure 1.1.
1
Satisfying Dirichlet’s conditions
1
 Figure 1.1: Rectangular signal with half duty cycle

Figure/Connection Diagram:

Figure 1.2: 555 Timer IC in Astable mode

We will use 555 timer IC to generate periodic rectangular signal. For this we connect 555 in astable
mode as shown in Figure 1.2.

1.3.2 Circuit operation

1.3.2.1 For duty cycle ≤ 50%

In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specified
duty cycle (≤ 50%) with desired time period. Resistor Ra is connected between +V cc and the discharge
pin (pin 7). Resistor Rb is connected between the discharge pin (pin7) and the trigger (pin 2) along with
the threshold pin (pin 6). The capacitor C charges through the path with Ra and the diode and
discharges only through Rb. There are two discharge paths available: i) through Rb, ii) through diode.
However, diode being in the reverse biased condition offers high impedance and hence the discharge
path chosen is Rb. It is because pin 7 has a low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the
cycle, therefore provides a path for discharge to the capacitor during off time. The charge and
discharge times are given
2
 by t1 = 0.693(Ra)C and t2 = 0.693(Rb)C respectively. The total time period is

T = t1 + t2 = 0.693(Ra + Rb)C (1.3)

and hence the frequency

1 1.44
f= . (1.4)
= (Ra + Rb)C
T

If we change the resistance Rb the duty cycle and frequency of the rectangular wave changes.

1.3.2.2 For duty cycle ≥ 50%

In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of rectangular pulses having a specified
duty cycle (≥ 50% ) with desired time period. Resistor Ra is connected between +V cc and the discharge
pin (pin 7). Resistor Rb is connected between the discharge pin (pin7) and the trigger (pin 2) along with
the threshold pin (pin 6). The capacitor C charges through Ra and Rb ,and discharges only through Rb.
It is because pin 7 has a low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle, therefore
provides a path for discharge to the capacitor during off time. The charge and discharge times are
given by t1 = 0.693(Ra + Rb)C and t2 = 0.693(Rb)C respectively. The total time period is

T = t1 + t2 = 0.693(Ra + 2Rb)C (1.5)

and hence the frequency

1 1.44
f= . (1.6)
= (Ra +
T
2Rb)C

If we change the resistance Rb the duty cycle and frequency of the rectangular wave changes.

1.4 Observations
1.4.1 Calculation

3
4
5
1.4.2 Observation Table

Fourier series coefficients

S. No. D Ra Rb Ton Toff D1 B.W.
(Duty (Observed
Cycle) K K a0 a1 a2 a3
D)
1 10% 14.43kΩ 129.87kΩ 0.1 0.9 12.7% 147.4us -2.95 -2.15 -3.15 -4.35
dBV dBV dBV dBV
2 30% 43.29kΩ 101.01kΩ 0.3 0.7 34.8% 425.8us 5.45 3.01 1.69 -1.25
dBV dBV dBV dBV
3 50% 72.15kΩ 72.15kΩ 0.5 0.5 54.0% 520.7us 10.2 5.81 -4.15 -9.75
dBV dBV dBV dBV
4 75% 72.15kΩ 36.07kΩ 0.75 0.25 78.4% 771.4us -36.00 2.500 -0.625 0.875
dBV dBV dBV dBV

1.5 Result Screenshots

6
Fig 1.1 10 % duty cycle

Fig 1.2 Fourier Series Coefficients for 10% duty cycle

7
Fig 2.1 30 % duty cycle

Fig 2.2 Fourier Series Coefficients for 30% duty cycle

8
Fig 3.1 50% duty cycle

Fig 3.2 Fourier Series Coefficients for 50% duty cycle

9
Fig 4.1 75% duty cycle

Fig 4.2 Fourier Series Coefficients for 75% duty cycle

10
1.6 Conclusions
The experiment successfully demonstrated the generation of periodic rectangular signals
with varying duty cycles (10%, 30%, 50%, and 75%) using a 555 Timer IC. The Fourier
domain representation of these signals was observed, highlighting the relationship
between duty cycle and spectral characteristics. The integration of the signal through an
RC network showed significant spectral changes, aligning with theoretical expectations.
These results validate the understanding of waveform generation, spectral analysis, and
signal processing through integrative circuits.

1.7 Precautions
1. Check the connections before switching on the kit.

2. Connections should be done properly.

3. Observation should be taken properly.

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1