Formula sheet of

Atomic structure
1. EARLY ATOMIC MODELS
a. CRT experiment
The results of these experiments are summarised below
(i) The cathode rays start from the cathode and move towards the anode.
(ii) These rays themselves are not visible.
(iii) In the absence of an electrical or magnetic field. these rays travel in straight lines
(iv) In the presence of the electric or magnetic field, the behavior of cathode rays is similar to that expected from negatively charged particles.
suggesting that the cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles, called electrons.
(v) The characteristics of cathode rays (electrons) do not depend upon the material of electrodes and the nature of the gas present in the cathode ray
tube.
(vi) Cathode rays produce a heating effect.
(vii) Cathode rays produce X-rays.
(viii) Cathode rays can pass through thin foils of metals like aluminum.
(ix) Cathode rays ionize the gas through which they pass.
Properties of anode rays
(i) Anode rays travel in a straight line.
(ii) Anode rays are material particles.
(iii) Anode rays are positively charged.
(iv) Anode rays may get deflected by an external magnetic field.
(v) Anode rays also affect the photographic plate.
(vi) The em ratio of these rays is smaller than that of electrons.
(vii) Unlike cathode rays, their e/m value is dependent upon the nature of the gas taken in the tube. It is maximum when the gas present in the tube is
hydrogen.
(viii) These rays produce flashes of light on the ZnS screen.

b. thomson's model
Postulates of Thomson's atomic model
Postulate 1:
An atom consists of a positively charged sphere with electrons embedded in it
Postulate 2:
An atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude Thomson atomic model is compared to
watermelon.
Where he considered:
• Watermelon seeds as negatively charged particles
• The red part of the watermelon as positively charged

c. gold foil experiment

Conclusion:
(i) Passing of a large number of a-particles through foil without scattering concludes that most of the atom is hollow.
(ii) Scattering of some a-particles at small angles concludes that the whole positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a very small part in one place.
(iii) Because scattering of α -particles follows a definite angular distribution pattern, so the positive charge is concentrated at the center of the atom.
(iv) Concentration of whole positive charge and almost whole mass in a very small part is also proved by the particles rebounded at an angle ≈ 180o
On the basis of these conclusions, Rutherford suggested that the whole positive charge of an atom is concentrated in a very small (having radii
1/10,000 to radii of an atom) dense region which is known as the nucleus.
d. rutherford's model

Rutherford's Model of Atom

The spiral path described by an electron as predicted by Rutherford's a-particle scattering experiment Spiral
path with decreasing radius of curvature constituted by the electron as predicted by Rutherford.Moreover, since
the radius of curvature would be steadily decreasing for such a hypothetical electron, the radiation, which is
emitted, should cover a continuous range of wavelengths varying from visible light to X-rays. However, we know
that such a spectrum is not produced; rather emission spectrum of an atom is a line spectrum.
2 2
(a) Kinetic energy of -particles: N = K1 /[(1/2)m ]
4
(b) Scattering angle ‘ ’: N = K2 / [sin ( /2)]
(c) Nuclear charge: N = K3 (Ze)2
Here, N = Number of -particles striking the screen and K1, K2 and K3 are the constants.
(d) Distance of closest approach :

2. Useful concept of Physics

a. Wave and Wave theory of light

A few characteristics of light are as follows:

While dealing with light waves, we deal with the sine waveform. The period of the waveform is one full 0 to
360-degree sweep.
Light waves have two important characteristics known as wavelength and frequency.
The distance between the peaks of the wave is known as the wavelength. In the case of a light wave, the
wavelengths are in the order of nanometers.
Frequency is the number of waves that will cross past a point in a second.
The relationship between wavelength and frequency is given by the equation:
f = 1/T
The speed of light in a vacuum is 3 × 108m/s
As proposed by Einstein, light is made of tiny packets of energy known as photons. The formula devised by
Planck determines the energy of a photon and it also shows that the energy is directly proportional to the
frequency of the light.
E = hf

b. basic terms of physics

Angular momentum = mvr
Centrifugal force
Fc = mv 2/r
Centripetal force
Fc = m 1 v 2 /r
Coulomb's Law
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract

kq 1q 2 q 1q 2
F = =
r 2
π4 ε0r 2
where ε 0 = permittivity of space
3. DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT
a. Planck's Quantum theory

Planck's Quantum Theory

According to this theory there must be oscillators in all radiating bodies for any possible range of frequencies.
Moreover, the energy of anyone oscillator of frequency v could assume only such values as were integral
multiple of a unit "E" which in turn was proportional to the frequency v, the proportionality constant being the
planck constant "h".
This postulate was expressed in the form of following Planck's equation:

b. Electromagnetic radiations

Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation, consisting of mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic components
According to Maxwell, it is the strength of electric and magnetic fields as they travel through space. The two
fields are oriented at right angles to each other and to the direction of travel. As the electric field changes, it
induces a magnetic field, which then induces a new electric field, etc, allowing the wave to propagate itself
through space.
(i) Frequency: (Hz). = distance travelled in one second. = velocity = c

Or

(ii) Velocity: c=

(iii) Wave number :

(iv) Time period :

4. BOHR'S THEORY
a. Bohr theory

Postulates of Bohr's Theory

1. Out of an infinite number of possible circular orbits around the nucleus, the electron can revolve only on
those orbits whose angular momentum is an integral multiple of
h
2 π mvr = 2nhπ where n=1,2,3,4..........

2. Negatively charged electrons are revolving around the nucleus in a similar way as the Planets are revolving
around the Sun. The path of the electron is circular. The force of attraction between the nucleus and the
electron is equal to the centrifugal force of the moving electron.
Force of attraction toward nucleus = Centrifugal force
mv2 2

r
= kze2
r

b. derivation of r,v,E

The radius of Bohr's orbit

The velocity of the electron in Bohr's orbit :

The total energy of the electron/system:

Ionization energy
2
. =+ 13. 6 z2 e . v
IE
n

c. time period, frequency

Time Period:-
3
→ T = 1 . 52× 10−16 n 2 sec
z
n2
T ∝
z3

Frequency:-
z2
f = 6 . 6 × 1015 sec −1
n3

5. ATOMIC SPECTRUM
a. Emission spectrum,Absorption spectrum

Atomic spectra of Hydrogen can be explained by using this theory

b. Hydrogen spectrum
Hydrogen spectrum

Maximum number of lines produced when an electron jumps from n th level to ground level is equal to For example

in the case of n = 4, number of lines produced is 6.(4 → 3,4 → 2. 4 +1,3 → 2,3 →1,2 1). When an electron returns from n2, to n1 state, the number of lines
in the spectrum will be equal to

Series limit or last line of a series: It is the line of shortest wavelength or line of highest energy:
For last line

Lyman limit Balmer limit

Paschen limit Brackett limit

Pfund limit Humphrey limit

c. Rydberg's equation

Rydberg Equation
where,

This value of R is in agreement with the experimentally determined value 109677.76 cm-1. Rydberg equation for
hydrogen may be given as,

6. Wave- particle duality

a. drawback of bohr , Sommerfeld model

Failures of Bohr’s Model :

(i) It is applicable only for one-electron species.
(ii) He couldn’t explain the fine spectrum of hydrogen when a powerful spectroscope is used then several lines
which are very closely placed are observed in addition to the expected lines later this problem was solved by
Sommerfeld who introduced the concept of the subshell.
(iii) He couldn’t explain the splitting of spectral lines into a group of finer lines under the influence of external
magnetic field (Zeeman effect) or under the influence of external electric field (stark effect).
(iv) He couldn’t give a theoretical reason for most of his assumption, for example he couldn’t justify why the
angular momentum of the electron should be quantized.
(v) Spectrum of isotopes of hydrogen was expected to be the same according to Bohr’s model but found
different experimentally.
Sommerfeld model of Atom
The refinements were:
(a) the introduction of elliptical orbits;
(b) allowance for an orbiting motion of the nucleus.
(c) the consideration of relativistic mass effects

b. De Broglie’s wavelength

de Broglie equation:
De Broglie's theory was the theory of duality of the universe. With the help of the De-Broglie equation, one can
find the wavelength of any particle which has mass and particle.

λ = ph = mv
h
= h
= h
2m K E. . 2m qV
Also if the E=qv then,

And for electrons,

c. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is the extension of the De-Broglie equation .first step of the establishment of
Quantum mechanical model of the atom.
∆ E ∆t ≥ 4hπ for energy and time
( )

Similarly , ∆φ∆θ ≥ 4hπ for angular motion

( )

7. Photoelectric effect
a. Photoelectric emission, observations and conclusions,Black body radiation,

Photoelectric effect and Black body radiation are the drawbacks of electromagnetic radiation these are the
applications of Plank’s quantum theory.

b. Einstein's photoelectric equation

Einstein's Photoelectric Equation
Einstein's equation consists of KE, Threshold energy, and energy of Photon, its a great application of Plank’s quantum theory.
K E . . = hv − Φ
E =ϕ+ K . E .
hv = hv 0 + K . E .
hv = hv 0 + m e v 2
1
2
c. photocurrent ,stopping volatge

Collector Voltage and Stopping Potential

Stopping potential and kinetic energy are having the same magnitude.

8. Schrodinger equation
a. Electronic configuration of ions

Ions can be formed by removing electrons from the outermost orbit and then fully filled orbitals then unpaired
electrons.
Magnetic Moment or Paramagnetism:-

b. Orbital angular momentum and spin angular momentum

Orbital Angular Momentum-There is a quantum number, denoted by l, which governs the magnitude of the angular momentum,
just as the quantum number nn determines the energy. The magnitude of the angular momentum may assume only those values
given l=0,1,2,3,...n−1l=0,1,2,3,...n−1.

The ml Quantum Number and Magnetic Fields

Spin Angular Momentum

c. FINDING MAX PROBABILITY DISTANCE

FINDING MAX PROBABILITY DISTANCE

Maximum probability can be find only by using basic integration with using limit of distance around the
nucleus.

d. Nodes

Node and Nodal Plane:-

Node: the region where the probability of finding an e- is zero.




 ψ 2 

= 0 → Node



 ψ 2 
 = 1 max probability of finding an e-

Nodal plane: The plane where the probability of finding e- is zero

Radial Node: Spherical Node

R.N. = n - l - 1
A.N. = l
Total Node = R.N. + A.N. = n - 1

e. Graphs of the radial distribution function

Radial distribution function

The probability of finding an electron in a volume element dζ dx . dy . dz
( ) . . = ψ2
is ψ ψdζ and ψ ψ ( ) is the probability density.
For the 1s ,2s and 2p orbital of hydrogen atom the normalized wave function graphs are ......

f. Angular wave function

Plots of Angular wave functions
No. of radial nodes = n - l - 1
No. of angular nodes = l
Total no. of nodes = n - l - 1 + l = (n - 1)
No. of peaks in ψ 21 vs r curve is (n - l)

g. Radial wave function

Radial wave function

Since potential energy is a function of 'r only, the wave function may be written as the product of three
functions, each one dependent on one spherical polar coordinate as
Y (r,q,f) = R(r) H(q)f (f)
In the above equation, R(r), which is a function of only "r" is known as the radial part of the wave function
(radial function). H(q) and f (f) and old are angular parts of the wave function. In terms of quantum number on
which the separate parts of wave function depend, it can be re-written as
Y n, I, m (r,q,f) = R n, I (r) Y I,m (q,f)
where, R, n, I is the "radial wave function" and YI,m is the product of two angular wave functions, and represents
the spherical harmonics. In terms of waves, the wave function for an electron corresponding to a specific value
of n, l, and m is called an "atomic orbital."

h. Wave function

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION CURVE

It is found that wave functions ( ) can be expressed as the product of two functions, one of which the radial
part R(r) depends only on the distance from the nucleus, the other being the angular part f depends only
on the
angles & .
Wave function = Radial wave function x angular wave function
Radial probability of finding an e- in a shell of thickness dr at a distance 'r'
⇒ R 2 r × 4π2dr
( ) ; = 4π2 R2 r dr
( )

i. Orbitals and shape of orbitals

Orbitals and shape of orbitals

1. s-orbital: Spherical
2. p-orbital: dumb-bell
3. d-orbital: double dumb-bell
4. f-orbital: complicated
After analyzing quantum numbers we will get an orbital, after that, we must learn the shape of orbitals.

j. SHRODINGER EQUATION
Schrodinger's Equation
 Spherical (polar) coordinates

Z = r cos θ
X = r sin θ cosϕ
Y=r sin θ sin ϕAlso, X2+Y2+Z2=r2

k. Exceptional configurations

l. Extra stable configurations

Stability of half-filled and completely filled orbitals

The exactly half-filled and completely filled orbitals have greater stability than other partially filled
configurations in degenerate orbitals.
Stability of half-filled and completely filled orbitals:
The exactly half-filled and completely filled orbitals have greater stability than other partially filled
configurations in degenerate orbitals
1 1 1
3
p

⥮ ⥮ ⥮ 6
p

1 1 11 1
5
d

⥮ ⥮ ⥮⥮ ⥮ 10
d

1 1 11 1 1 1
7
f

⥮ ⥮ ⥮⥮ ⥮ ⥮ ⥮ 14
f

m. EXCHANGE PAIRS AND SPIN PAIRS

Spin pairing energy refers to the energy associated with paired electrons sharing one orbital and its effect on
the molecules surrounding it. Electron pairing determining the direction of spin depends on several laws
founded by chemists over the years such as Hund's law the Aufbau principle and Pauli's exclusion
principle. An overview of the different types of laws associated with the electron pairing rules.

Stability of fulfilled > half-filled​​

n. Electronic configuration of atoms

Electronic configuration of atoms
The electron configuration of an element describes how electrons are distributed in their atomic orbitals. Electron configurations of atoms follow a
standard notation in which all electron-containing atomic subshells (with the number of electrons they hold written in superscript) are placed in a
sequence. For example, the electron configuration of sodium is 1s22s22p63s1.
The word 'Aufbau' is German for 'building up'. The Aufbau principle, also called the building-up principle, states that electron's occupy orbitals in order of
increasing energy. The order of occupation is as follows:

Energy of subhell :
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s < 4f < 5d < 6p < 7s < 5f < 6d < 7p

o. Hund's rule

Hund's rule
The multiplicity of a state is defined as 2S + 1, where S is the total electronic spin. A high multiplicity state is,
therefore, the same as a high-spin state. The lowest-energy state with maximum multiplicity usually has
unpaired electrons all with parallel spin.

p. Pauli's exclusion principle

Pauli's exclusion principle

The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that, in an atom or molecule, no two electrons can have the same four
electronic quantum numbers. As an orbital can contain a maximum of only two electrons, the two electrons
must have opposing spins. This means if one is assigned an up-spin ( +1/2), the other must be down-spin
(-1/2).

q. Aufbau rule
AUFBAU RULE
The subshell with minimum energy is filled up first and when this obtains the maximum quota of electrons,
then the next subshell of higher energy starts filling. The sequence in which the various subshells are filled in
the following:

1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p,5s,4d,5p,6s,4f,5d,6p,7s,5f,6d,7p.

Energy of subshell
-1s<2s=2p<3s=3p=3d<4s=4p=4d=4f<....

r. QUANTUM NUMBERS
Quantum numbers are the answers to Schrodinger's wave equation, with the help of all quantum numbers, one can find the size, shape, and orientation of
orbitals.
(1) Principal Quantum No.(n):
The principal quantum number or total quantum number n arises from the solution of the radial part of the Schrodinger equation for the hydrogen atom.
The bound state energies of the electron in the hydrogen atom are given by

It gives value of angular momentum of electron i.e

(2) Azimuthal Quantum No. or Angular momentum Quantum no. (l):

Permissible values of I is 0 to (n-1). i. e. value of l is restricted by n.
It identify sub shell in an atom.
The value of ' l ’ gives name of sub-shell and shape of orbital.

(3) magnetic quantum number (m)

The direct implication of this quantum number is that the 2-component of angular momentum is quantized according to Lz -mlh /2p

(4) Spin quantum number (s)

An electron, besides charge and mass, has also spin angular momentum commonly called spin. The spin angular momentum of the electron is constant
and cannot be changed.