PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation

LEARNING
MODULE 01:
INTRODUCTION TO
DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATION

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

Prepared by:
AERO FACULTY

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Ref.
Title Page
no
I. DEFINE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 1-4 5
II. CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 5 7
III. SOLUTION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 6, 7 & 9 9
IV. SOME OF THE METHODS AND SOLUTIONS FOR
8&9 11
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
MODULE LEARNING REPORT 15

TIME ALLOTMENT TO FAMILARIZE

DEFINE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 20 Mins
CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS 30 Mins
SOLUTION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 40 Mins
SOME OF THE METHODS AND SOLUTIONS FOR 30 Mins
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
MODULE LEARNING REPORT 180 Mins

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation

TABLE OF REFERENCES
References N
o.
Paul Dawkins, (2003-2020).
1
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/de/de.aspx
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., (2020)
2
https://www.britannica.com/science/differential-equation
BYJU'S, (2020) https://byjus.com/maths/differential-equation/#definition 3
ITCconline.net, (2002)
4
http://www.ltcconline.net/greenl/courses/204/firstOrder/classification.htm)
Toppr.com, (2020). https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/differential-
equations/general-and-particular-solutions-of-a-differential-
5
equation/#:~:text=For%20example%2C%20the%20general%20solution,show
n%20in%20the%20figure%20below.
Alex Makar, (2013). http://www.copingwithcalculus.com/general-and- 6
particular-solutions.html
Paul Dawkins, (2003-2020).
7
https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/de/de.aspx

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation
This module discusses the definition, classification of DE, solution and some methods
of solving differential equation.
LEARNING OUTCOMES

Course Learning Outcomes [CLO]

CLO 2: Classify Differential Module Learning Outcomes [MLO]

Equation Solutions using
formulas and theorems. Topic Learning Outcomes [TLO]
MLO 01: Acknowledge the
CLO 3. Construct solutions of definition and classification of
differential equation such as ODEs TLO 01: Classify the degree and
general and particular solutions MLO 02: Differentiate the order of Differential Equations
using the constant of by analyzing the standard form
different Solutions to ODEs
integration and the initial/ of ordinary Differential
boundary value problems. equation.
CLO 4. Distinguish the TLO 02: Distinguish different
differences between the types of Differential equations
different formulae to accurately by classifying them to linear,
apply to different situations of nonlinear, partial and ordinary
finding differential equations. differential equations.
CLO 5. Elaborate basic Principles TLO 03: Examine the different
of differential calculus on types/procedures of ODE by
finding the solutions of solving differential equations
differential equations.

As an introductory activity, you are encouraged to watch a short video entitled

“Differential Equations - Introduction, Order and Degree, Solutions to DE” by Yu Jei
Abat, using the following You Tube link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hiL356ExeIw.
This video defines the classification of DE, order and degree of a differential equation
and shows an example for proving that a certain equation is a solution to a certain
differential equation.

“As students, you are expected uphold standards of intellectual and academic
integrity. The State College assumes as a basic and minimum standard of
conduct in academic matters that students must be honest and that they submit
for credit only the works of their own efforts.”

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation

I. DEFINE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

-A differential equation is any equation which contains derivatives, either ordinary
derivatives or partial derivatives.

-A differential equation is an equation which contains one or more terms which involve the
derivatives of one variable (i.e., dependent variable) with respect to the other variable (i.e.,
independent variable)

dy/dx = f(x)

Here “x” is an independent variable and “y” is a dependent variable

For example, dy/dx = 5x

A differential equation that contains derivatives which are either partial derivatives or ordinary
derivatives. The derivatives represent a rate of change, and the differential equation describes a
relationship between the quantity that is continuously varying and the speed of change. There are a
lot of differential equations formulas to find the solution of the derivatives.

-Simple definition, solving for “y”, where as “y” is the dependent variable and “x” as the
independent variable.

These notations are what you would normally see in a Differential Equations.

Common Notations in Differential Equations

2nd 3rd 4th n-th

Notes
Derivatives Derivatives Derivative Derivative
One of the most common
𝒇′′ (𝒙) 𝒇′′′ (𝒙) 𝒇(𝟒) (𝒙) 𝒇(𝒏) (𝒙)
Notation
𝒅𝟐 𝒇 𝒅𝟑𝒇 𝒅𝟒 𝒇 𝒅𝒏 𝒇
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙𝟒 𝒅𝒙𝒏
Leibniz Notation
𝒅𝟐 𝒅𝟑 𝒅𝟒 𝒅𝒏
[𝒇(𝒙)] [𝒇(𝒙)] [𝒇(𝒙)] [𝒇(𝒙)]
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙𝟒 𝒅𝒙𝒏
𝑫𝟐 𝒇 𝑫𝟑 𝒇 𝑫𝟒 𝒇 𝑫𝒏 𝒇 Euler’s Notation

Degree and Order of a Differential Equation

Degree is the power of the Highest Order. Order is the Highest Derivative present in the Equation.

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
Ex. 𝟐 + = 𝟑𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒚)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑑2𝑦
In this example, the Term with the highest derivative is and its power is 1. 2nd Order, 1st Degree
𝑑𝑥 2
Linear and Non-Linear Equation

It is linear if the order is in a right sequence/descending order and the last variable has the power of
1, trigonometric functions, ln and e are not accepted as linear as the last term.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation
Example: Determine whether the given Differential Equation is Linear or not.

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
1. + + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝒚) = 𝟑𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒚) Non-Linear, last term is trigonometric
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
2. + + 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒚) Linear
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
3. + + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟑𝒙𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒚) Non-Linear, for last term has the power
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
of 2

Example. Determine the Order and the Degree of the given Differential Equations

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟐
1. + 𝟑 ( ) + 𝟒𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔
𝒅𝒙𝟐
∴ 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝟏.
𝒅𝒙𝟐
∴ 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 = 𝟏
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
2. +𝟐 + 𝟑𝒚 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
𝑯𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒔
𝒅𝒙𝟐
∴ 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝟏.
𝒅𝒙𝟐
∴ 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 = 𝟏
𝒅𝟑 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟔
3. − 𝟑 ( ) + 𝟐𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐
𝒅𝒙𝟑 𝒅𝒙
∴ 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 = 𝟑, 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 = 𝟏
𝟑
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
4. [𝟏 + 𝟐
] =𝒂
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙𝟐
𝑬𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍
𝟑 𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝟐
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
[𝟏 + 𝟐 ] = 𝒂 ( 𝟐 )
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
∴ 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 = 𝟐, 𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 = 𝟑

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation

II. CLASSIFICATION OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

There are two classification of Differential Equations, namely Ordinary and Partial Differential
Equations.

A PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION is a differential equation that involves partial derivatives.

An ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION is a differential equation that does not involve partial
derivatives.

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
This example + = 𝟑𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 is an ordinary differential equation since it does not
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
contain partial derivatives.

𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝒙+𝒕
This example +𝒙 = is a partial differential equation, since y is a function of the
𝝏𝒕 𝝏𝒙 𝒙−𝒕
two variables x and t and partial derivatives are present.

Another way of classifying differential equations is by order. Any ordinary differential equation can
be written in the form F(x,y,y',y'',...,y(n)) = 0 by setting everything equal to zero.

The order of a differential equation is the highest derivative that appears in the above equation.

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
This example 𝟐
+ = 𝟑𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 Is a second order differential equation, since a
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
second derivative appears in the equation.

This example 𝟑𝒚𝟒𝒚′′′ − 𝒙𝟑𝒚′ + 𝒆𝒙𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎 is a third order differential equation.

Once we have written a differential equation in the form F(x,y,y',y'',...,y(n)) = 0

We can talk about whether a differential equation is linear or not.

We say that the differential equation above is a linear differential equation if

𝝏𝑭
=𝟎
𝝏𝒚(𝒊) 𝝏𝒚(𝒋)

for all i and j. Any linear ordinary differential equation of degree n can be written as

𝒂𝟎(𝒙)𝒚(𝒏) + 𝒂𝟏(𝒙)𝒚(𝒏 − 𝟏) + . . . + 𝒂𝒏 − 𝟏(𝒙)𝒚′ + 𝒂𝒏(𝒙)𝒚 = 𝒈(𝒙)

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation

This example 𝟑𝒙𝟐𝒚′′ + 𝟐𝒍𝒏(𝒙)𝒚′ + 𝒆𝒙 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒙 is a second order linear

ordinary differential equation. 4yy''' - x3y' + cos y = e2x is not a linear differential equation because
of the 4yy''' and the cos y terms.

Nonlinear differential equations are often very difficult or impossible to solve. One approach getting
around this difficulty is to linearize the differential equation.

This example 𝒚′′ + 𝟐𝒚′ + 𝒆𝒚 = 𝒙 is nonlinear because of the 𝒆𝒚 term.

However 𝒆𝒚 = 𝟏 + 𝒚 + 𝒚𝟐/𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑/𝟔 + . ..

We can approximate this by 𝟏 + 𝒚

We instead solve the much easier linear differential equation 𝒚′′ + 𝟐𝒚′ + 𝟏 + 𝒚 = 𝒙

We say that a function f(x) is a solution to a differential equation if plugging in f(x) into the equation
makes the equation equal.

Example: Show that 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 + 𝒆𝟐𝒙 is a solution to 𝒚′′ − 𝟐𝒚′ = − 𝟐

Solution

Taking derivatives:

𝒇′(𝒙) = 𝟏 + 𝟐𝒆𝟐𝒙 , 𝒇′′(𝒙) = 𝟒𝒆𝟐𝒙

Now plug in to get 𝟒𝒆𝟐𝒙 − 𝟐(𝟏 + 𝟐𝒆𝟐𝒙 ) = 𝟒𝒆𝟐𝒙 − 𝟐 − 𝟒𝒆𝟐𝒙 = − 𝟐

Hence it is a solution

Two questions that we will be asking repeatedly of a differential equation in this course are

1. Does that exist a solution to the differential equation?

2. Is the solution given unique?

In the example above, the answer to the first question is yes since we verified that
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 + 𝒆𝟐𝒙 is a solution. However, the answer to the second question is no. It can be verified
that 𝒔(𝒙) = 𝟒 + 𝒙 is also a solution.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation

III. SOLUTION OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

General Solution of a Differential Equation

A General Solution of an nth order differential equation is one that involves n necessary arbitrary
constants. General Solutions are solutions where as there is an arbitrary constant, the letter C in an
Integration general Solution.

Particular Solution of a Differential Equation

A Particular Solution of a differential equation is a solution obtained from the General Solution by
assigning specific values to the arbitrary constants. The conditions for calculating the values of the
arbitrary constants can be provided to us in the form of an Initial-Value Problem, or Boundary
Conditions, depending on the problem.

Example 1: Finding a Particular Solution

Find the particular solution of the differential equation which satisfies the given initial condition:
𝒅𝒚
= 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏 ; 𝒚(𝟎) = 𝟒
𝒅𝒙
First, we need to find the general solution. To do this, we need to integrate both sides to find y:
𝒅𝒚
= 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
𝒅𝒙
𝒚 = ∫(𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏)𝒅𝒙 Integrate Both Sides

𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙 + 𝒄 General Solution
This gives us our general solution. To find the particular solution, we need to apply the initial
conditions given to us (y = 4, x = 0) and solve for C:
𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙 + 𝒄

𝟒 = (𝟎)𝟑 − 𝟎 + 𝒄 Apply the initial conditions

𝟒=𝒄 Solve for c

𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙 + 𝟒 Particular Solution

Initial Value Problems

One way of finding the particular solution is by Initial Value Problem. The problem of finding a
function y of x when we know its derivative and its value y0 at a particular point x0 is called an initial
value problem. This problem can be solved in two steps.

1.∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ➔ 𝑦 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝑐  General Solution

2. Using the initial data, plug it into the general solution and solve for c.

9|Page
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation
Example 1: Solve for the Particular Solution of the given IVP
𝒅𝒚
= 𝟏𝟎 − 𝒙 , 𝒚(𝟎) = −𝟏
𝒅𝒙

Step 1: Solve of General Solution

𝒅𝒚
𝒅𝒙
= (𝟏𝟎 − 𝒙) ➔ 𝒅𝒚 = (𝟏𝟎 − 𝒙)𝒅𝒙 ➔ ∫ 𝒅𝒚 = ∫(𝟏𝟎 − 𝒙)𝒅𝒙

𝒙𝟐
➔ 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝒙 − 𝟐
+𝒄

Step 2: Input Initial Value 𝒚(𝟎) = −𝟏, or we can say x = 0, y = -1

𝒙𝟐 𝟎𝟐
𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝒙 − +𝒄 ➔ −𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎(𝟎) − +𝒄 ➔ 𝒄 = −𝟏
𝟐 𝟐

𝒙𝟐
Particular Solution 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎𝒙 − −𝟏
𝟐

Example 2: Solve for the Particular Solution of the given IVP

𝒅𝟐 𝒚
𝒅𝒙𝟐
= 𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 , 𝒚′ (𝟎) = 𝟒, 𝒚(𝟎) = 𝟏

Step 1: Solve for General Solution

𝟔𝒙𝟐
𝒚′ = ∫(𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙)𝒅𝒙 ➔ 𝒚′ = 𝟐𝒙 − +𝒄  Gen Sol.
𝟐

Step 2: Input Initial Value 𝒚′ (𝟎) = 𝟒

𝟔𝒙𝟐 𝟔(𝟎)𝟐
𝒚′ = 𝟐𝒙 − +𝒄 ➔ 𝟒 = 𝟐(𝟎) − +𝒄 ➔ 𝒄=𝟒
𝟐 𝟐

𝟔𝒙𝟐
Particular Solution 𝒚′ = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟐
+𝟒

Step 1: Solve Again

𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝟑𝒙𝟐
𝒚 = ∫(𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝒙^𝟐 + 𝟒)𝒅𝒙 ➔ 𝒚= 𝟐
− 𝟑
+ 𝟒𝒙 + 𝒄  Gen Sol

Step 2: Input Initial Value 𝒚(𝟎) = 𝟏

𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝟐(𝟎𝟐 ) 𝟑(𝟎)𝟐
𝒚= 𝟐
− 𝟑
+ 𝟒𝒙 + 𝒄 ➔ 𝟏= 𝟐
− 𝟑
+ 𝟒(𝟎) + 𝒄 ➔c=1

𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝟑𝒙𝟐
Particular Solution 𝒚= − + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟏
𝟐 𝟑

∴ 𝑾𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒓𝒆 𝑰𝑽𝑷, 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝑽𝑷, 𝑩𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎
⋯ 𝒚′ (𝟎) = 𝟒, 𝒚(𝟎) = 𝟏 → 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝑰𝑽𝑷, 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒙
⋯ 𝒚′ (𝟏) = 𝟒, 𝒚(𝟎) = 𝟏 → 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝑩𝑽𝑷, 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒙

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation

IV. Some of the Methods and solutions for Differential Equations.

These are some definitions I’ve taken from one of the references, you can read and familiarize with
this or you can open the references. These are the common things we will encounter so I put it here.

First Order Differential Equations - In this chapter we will look at several of the standard solution
methods for first order differential equations including linear, separable, exact and Bernoulli
differential equations. We also take a look at intervals of validity, equilibrium solutions and Euler’s
Method. In addition, we model some physical situations with first order differential equations.

Linear Equations – In this section we solve linear first order differential equations, i.e. differential
equations in the form y′+p(t)y=g(t). We give an in depth overview of the process used to solve this
type of differential equation as well as a derivation of the formula needed for the integrating factor
used in the solution process.
Separable Equations – In this section we solve separable first order differential equations, i.e.
differential equations in the form N(y)y′=M(x). We will give a derivation of the solution process to
this type of differential equation. We’ll also start looking at finding the interval of validity for the
solution to a differential equation.
Exact Equations – In this section we will discuss identifying and solving exact differential equations.
We will develop of a test that can be used to identify exact differential equations and give a detailed
explanation of the solution process. We will also do a few more interval of validity problems here as
well.
Bernoulli Differential Equations – In this section we solve Bernoulli differential equations, i.e.
differential equations in the form y′+p(t)y=𝒚𝒏 . This section will also introduce the idea of using a
substitution to help us solve differential equations.
Substitutions – In this section we’ll pick up where the last section left off and take a look at a couple
of other substitutions that can be used to solve some differential equations. In particular we will
discuss using solutions to solve differential equations of the form y′=F(y/x) and y′=G(ax+by).
Intervals of Validity – In this section we will give an in depth look at intervals of validity as well as an
answer to the existence and uniqueness question for first order differential equations.
Modeling with First Order Differential Equations – In this section we will use first order differential
equations to model physical situations. In particular we will look at mixing problems (modeling the
amount of a substance dissolved in a liquid and liquid both enters and exits), population problems
(modeling a population under a variety of situations in which the population can enter or exit) and
falling objects (modeling the velocity of a falling object under the influence of both gravity and air
resistance).
Equilibrium Solutions – In this section we will define equilibrium solutions (or equilibrium points) for
autonomous differential equations, y′=f(y). We discuss classifying equilibrium solutions as
asymptotically stable, unstable or semi-stable equilibrium solutions.
Euler’s Method – In this section we’ll take a brief look at a fairly simple method for approximating
solutions to differential equations. We derive the formulas used by Euler’s Method and give a brief
discussion of the errors in the approximations of the solutions.

Second Order Differential Equations - In this chapter we will start looking at second order
differential equations. We will concentrate mostly on constant coefficient second order differential
equations. We will derive the solutions for homogeneous differential equations and we will use the
methods of undetermined coefficients and variation of parameters to solve non homogeneous
differential equations. In addition, we will discuss reduction of order, fundamentals of sets of
solutions, Wronskian and mechanical vibrations.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation
Basic Concepts – In this section give an in-depth discussion on the process used to solve
homogeneous, linear, second order differential equations, ay′′+by′+cy=0. We derive the
characteristic polynomial and discuss how the Principle of Superposition is used to get the general
solution.
Real Roots – In this section we discuss the solution to homogeneous, linear, second order
differential equations, ay′′+by′+cy=0, in which the roots of the characteristic
polynomial, ar2+br+c=0ar2+br+c=0, are real distinct roots.
Complex Roots – In this section we discuss the solution to homogeneous, linear, second order
differential equations, ay′′+by′+cy=0, in which the roots of the characteristic
polynomial, ar2+br+c=0ar2+br+c=0, are real distinct roots. We will also derive from the complex
roots the standard solution that is typically used in this case that will not involve complex numbers.
Repeated Roots – In this section we discuss the solution to homogeneous, linear, second order
differential equations, ay′′+by′+cy=0, in which the roots of the characteristic
polynomial, ar^2+br+c=0, are repeated, i.e. double, roots. We will use reduction of order to derive
the second solution needed to get a general solution in this case.
Reduction of Order – In this section we will discuss reduction of order, the process used to derive
the solution to the repeated roots case for homogeneous linear second order differential equations,
in greater detail. This will be one of the few times in this chapter that non-constant coefficient
differential equation will be looked at.
Fundamental Sets of Solutions – In this section we will a look at some of the theory behind the
solution to second order differential equations. We define fundamental sets of solutions and discuss
how they can be used to get a general solution to a homogeneous second order differential
equation. We will also define the Wronskian and show how it can be used to determine if a pair of
solutions are a fundamental set of solutions.
More on the Wronskian – In this section we will examine how the Wronskian, introduced in the
previous section, can be used to determine if two functions are linearly independent or linearly
dependent. We will also give and an alternate method for finding the Wronskian.
Nonhomogeneous Differential Equations – In this section we will discuss the basics of solving
nonhomogeneous differential equations. We define the complimentary and particular solution and
give the form of the general solution to a nonhomogeneous differential equation.
Undetermined Coefficients – In this section we introduce the method of undetermined coefficients
to find particular solutions to nonhomogeneous differential equation. We work a wide variety of
examples illustrating the many guidelines for making the initial guess of the form of the particular
solution that is needed for the method.
Variation of Parameters – In this section we introduce the method of variation of parameters to find
particular solutions to nonhomogeneous differential equation. We give a detailed examination of
the method as well as derive a formula that can be used to find particular solutions.
Mechanical Vibrations – In this section we will examine mechanical vibrations. In particular we will
model an object connected to a spring and moving up and down. We also allow for the introduction
of a damper to the system and for general external forces to act on the object. Note as well that
while we example mechanical vibrations in this section a simple change of notation (and
corresponding change in what the quantities represent) can move this into almost any other
engineering field.

Laplace Transforms - In this chapter we introduce Laplace Transforms and how they are used to
solve Initial Value Problems. With the introduction of Laplace Transforms we will now be able to
solve some Initial Value Problems that we wouldn’t be able to solve otherwise. We will solve
differential equations that involve Heaviside and Dirac Delta functions. We will also give brief

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation
overview on using Laplace transforms to solve nonconstant coefficient differential equations. In
addition, we will define the convolution integral and show how it can be used to take inverse
transforms.

The Definition – In this section we give the definition of the Laplace transform. We will also compute
a couple Laplace transforms using the definition.
Laplace Transforms – In this section we introduce the way we usually compute Laplace transforms
that avoids needing to use the definition. We discuss the table of Laplace transforms used in this
material and work a variety of examples illustrating the use of the table of Laplace transforms.
Inverse Laplace Transforms – In this section we ask the opposite question from the previous section.
In other words, given a Laplace transform, what function did we originally have? We again work a
variety of examples illustrating how to use the table of Laplace transforms to do this as well as some
of the manipulation of the given Laplace transform that is needed in order to use the table.
Step Functions – In this section we introduce the step or Heaviside function. We illustrate how to
write a piecewise function in terms of Heaviside functions. We also work a variety of examples
showing how to take Laplace transforms and inverse Laplace transforms that involve Heaviside
functions. We also derive the formulas for taking the Laplace transform of functions which involve
Heaviside functions.
Solving IVPs' with Laplace Transforms - In this section we will examine how to use Laplace
transforms to solve IVP’s. The examples in this section are restricted to differential equations that
could be solved without using Laplace transform. The advantage of starting out with this type of
differential equation is that the work tends to be not as involved and we can always check our
answers if we wish to.
Nonconstant Coefficient IVP’s – In this section we will give a brief overview of using Laplace
transforms to solve some nonconstant coefficient IVP’s. We do not work a great many examples in
this section. We only work a couple to illustrate how the process works with Laplace transforms.
IVP’s with Step Functions – This is the section where the reason for using Laplace transforms really
becomes apparent. We will use Laplace transforms to solve IVP’s that contain Heaviside (or step)
functions. Without Laplace transforms solving these would involve quite a bit of work. While we do
work one of these examples without Laplace transforms, we do it only to show what would be
involved if we did try to solve one of the examples without using Laplace transforms.
Dirac Delta Function – In this section we introduce the Dirac Delta function and derive the Laplace
transform of the Dirac Delta function. We work a couple of examples of solving differential
equations involving Dirac Delta functions and unlike problems with Heaviside functions our only real
option for this kind of differential equation is to use Laplace transforms. We also give a nice
relationship between Heaviside and Dirac Delta functions.
Convolution Integral – In this section we give a brief introduction to the convolution integral and
how it can be used to take inverse Laplace transforms. We also illustrate its use in solving a
differential equation in which the forcing function (i.e. the term without any y’s in it) is not known.
Table of Laplace Transforms – This section is the table of Laplace Transforms that we’ll be using in
the material. We give as wide a variety of Laplace transforms as possible including some that aren’t
often given in tables of Laplace transforms.

For in-depth explanations and processes, open the reference 7 at the table of reference.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation
Standard Forms
Separation of Variables equations look like this:
𝑑𝑦 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑦

First Order Linear are of this type:

𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Homogeneous equations look like:
𝑑𝑦
= 𝐹 ( 𝑦𝑥 )
𝑑𝑥
Bernoulli are of this general form:
𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑃(𝑥)𝑦 = 𝑄(𝑥)𝑦𝑛, 𝑛 ≠ 0 𝑜𝑟 1
𝑑𝑥
Second Order (homogeneous) are of the type:
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
+ 𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑄(𝑥)𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Undetermined Coefficients and Variation of Parameters are both methods
for solving second order equations when they are non-homogeneous like:
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
+𝑝 + 𝑞𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Exact Equation is where a first-order differential equation like this:

𝑀(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑁(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 0

has some special function I(x,y) whose partial derivatives can be put in
place of M and N like this:

𝜕𝐼 𝜕𝐼
𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 01: Introduction to Differential Equation

Module Learning Report

Write it on a clean paper and answer the problems lengthwise.
Please write your name on the top left corner and your course, year level, and the section below. Insert “Prelim Assignment”
at the top centre of the paper.
Submit your scanned work to the provided link in the google classroom.

It should contain a report about the important parts/Key points of every topic in this module in the way you understand it.
Include some examples about every topic as much as possible.

PS. You don’t need to give examples that you haven’t learned yet or not included in the module.

Here is the Basis of your grades

Rubrics
Score CRITERIA
Knowledge Generate new ideas Completeness
5 The report shows full The report shows The report covers all
knowledge with a well best new ideas for the topics in the
concise explanations advancement of module
learning
4 The report shows numerous The report shows The report covers
knowledge with a well some new ideas for 80% of the topics in
concise explanations advancement of the module
learning
3 The report shows numerous The report shows a The report covers
knowledge with concise well generated new 60% of the topics in
explanations ideas the module
2 The report shows numerous The report shows The report covers
knowledge with some some new ideas 40% of the topics in
concise explanations the module
1 The report shows some The report doesn’t The report covers
knowledge with some show new ideas 20% of the topics in
concise explanations the module

Make sure to compile all your problem sets and Written Reports.

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