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Adel Rawea

Analog Control Systems

ERROR
PROPORTIONAL
𝒙 𝒕 𝒐𝒓
+
𝒖(𝒕) 𝐲(𝒕)
𝒓(𝒕) INTEGRAL PLANT OUTPUT
_
DESIRED SIGNAL
DERIVATIVE
SIGNAL SENSOR
𝑷𝑰𝑫 CONTROLLER (FB)

ACS SANA’A UNIVERSITY DR. ADEL RAWEA

Control Systems Modelling

and Their Representation 03

ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS DR. ADEL RAWEA

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The Concept of Transfer Function

Consider the following transfer function whose numerator and denominator
are the polynomials in s.

From the G(s) equation: if n > m, the transfer function is said to be strictly
proper, if n = m, the transfer function is proper and if n < m, the transfer
function is improper.
Further if the denominator polynomial is equated to zero, we get:

This equation is called as characteristic equation because it decides the

stability of the system. Further, the transient and steady state responses, to
a large extend depends upon the characteristic equation.
ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS 3

The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Poles and Zeros of the Transfer Function
Consider the transfer function G(s) in the last equation. The numerator and
denominator polynomials can be written in factors as given below:
K

In this transfer function equation, the factors in the numerator are called
zeros of the transfer function and the factors in the denominator are called
poles of the transfer function.
The poles and zeros can be located in the complex s-plane at (s = −p1), (s =
−p2) etc., and the zeros at (s = −z1), (s = −z2) etc.
The poles locations are marked with a cross (×) and the zero locations are
marked with a small circle (○).
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The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Poles and Zeros of the Transfer Function
It is also noticed in transfer function G(s), at (s = −p1) or (s = −p2) etc., the
T.F. (transfer function) becomes infinitive and at (s = −z1) or (s = −z2) etc.,
the T.F. becomes zero. p1, p2, ..., pn and z1, z2, ..., zn may be real or complex.
Thus, the factors of the denominator of the transfer function which are
called zeros are defined as “the points in the complex s-plane at which the
transfer function becomes zero”. Similarly the factors of the denominator
of the transfer function which are called poles are defined as “the points in
the complex s-plane at which the transfer function becomes infinitive”.

ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS 5

The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Complex s-Plane and the Locations of Poles and Zeros
The complex variable s = σ + jω and the s-plane is shown in next figure. The
horizontal axis represents the positive and negative real parts and the vertical
axis represents positive and negative imaginary parts. It contains four quadrants
as shown in next figure.
The infinite space complex
s-plane is divided by the vertical
imaginary as Left Half Plane (LHP)
and Right Half Plane (RHP).
The importance of this division
plays significant role in the system
stability and the transient
response studies which will be
dealt with in the chapters to
follow. 6
ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS

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The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Complex s-Plane and the Locations of Poles and Zeros
Now let us consider the location of the poles and zeros in the complex
s-plane. Consider the following transfer function:

From transfer function

there are three zeros (○),
and five poles (×).
K=10
Note:
The order of the system is defined as follows:
The order of the system is defined as the highest order of the denominator polynomial or the
numerator polynomial whichever is greater.
ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS 7

The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Complex s-Plane and the Locations of Poles and Zeros

ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS 8

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The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Sinusoidal, Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer
Functions.
1) Sinusoidal Transfer Function:
Consider system shown in next Figure where R(s) is the Laplace transform of
input variable r(t) and C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output variable
c(t). G(s) is the transfer function of the system which is related by the
following equation:

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The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Sinusoidal, Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer
Functions.
1) Sinusoidal Transfer Function:
If the input r(t) = A sin(ωt), a sinusoid, for a linear system, that the output is
also a sinusoid with a phase shift of φ. This is obtained after the input signal
is processed by the system. For next Figure, the following equation is
obtained:
This transfer function is
obtained from last transfer
function by replacing s by jω.

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The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Sinusoidal, Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer
Functions.
1) Sinusoidal Transfer Function:
From transfer function G(s) sinusoidal T.F G( jω) is obtained replacing s by jω.
Sinusoidal T.F. is very useful in the study of frequency response method of
analysis which will be discussed later in detail.

ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS 11

The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Sinusoidal, Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer
Functions.
2) Minimum Phase Transfer Function:
Consider the following T.F.

The sinusoidal T.F. is obtained replacing s by jω.

In the complex plane a complex function is represented with its real and
imaginary parts as shown in next Figure. From next Figure. the magnitude
and phase angle of G(jω) are obtained as,

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The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Sinusoidal, Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer
Functions.
2) Minimum Phase Transfer Function:

Representation of complex minimum phase function

ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS 13

The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Sinusoidal, Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer
Functions.
2) Minimum Phase Transfer Function:
Form last Figure, it is evident that θ1 and θ2 when measured from positive
real axis (reference axis) for any particular ω, they give minimum phase shift.
This is possible if the poles and zeros are in the LHP of the s-plane. Hence,
the following definition follows.
A minimum phase transfer function is defined as the transfer function whose
poles and zeros are located in the left half s-plane.
Here the zero is located at s = (-3/2) and pole at s = (-4/5).

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The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Sinusoidal, Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer
Functions.
3) Non-Minimum Phase Transfer Function:
Consider the following transfer function:

The sinusoidal transfer function is given by

ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS 15

The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Sinusoidal, Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer
Functions.
3) Non-Minimum Phase Transfer Function:
The phase angle contribution of the poles and zero of the given T.F. is not
minimum. Maximum value of θ1 and θ2 is 90◦. However, the zero contributes
more than 90◦ and the pole contributes more than 270◦. Hence, they are
called non-minimum phase T.F. The pole and zero are located in RHP of the
s-plane. Hence, the non-minimum phase transfer is defined as follows.
The non-minimum phase transfer function is defined as the transfer function
which has at least a pole or a zero located in the RHP of the s-plane.
In the above T.F. the zero is located at s = 3/2 and the pole is located at
s =4/5.
which are points on the positive real in RHP

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The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Sinusoidal, Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer
Functions.
3) Non-Minimum Phase Transfer Function:

Representation of non-minimum phase transfer function 17

ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS

The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Sinusoidal, Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer
Functions.
4) All Pass Transfer
Consider, for example the following transfer functions:

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The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Sinusoidal, Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer
Functions.
4) All Pass Transfer
The pole-zero locations of the above transfer functions are shown in next
Figure (a–c) respectively. Here, corresponding to a pole, a zero is
symmetrically placed with respect to the (jω) axis.

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The Concept of Transfer Function

❖ Sinusoidal, Minimum Phase, Non-minimum Phase and All Pass Transfer
Functions.
4) All Pass Transfer
An all pass transfer function is defined as the T.F. which has poles and zeros
symmetrically placed with respect to the (jω) axis. Such systems do not alter
the amplitude of the input signal.
Z and P = Z(3,0) , P(-3,0)
Z and P = Z1(-2,0), P1(2,0) and Z2(0,3) , P2(0,-3)
Z and P = Z1(1,-j), P1(-1,-j) and Z2(1,+j) , P2(-1,+j)

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System Representation in Simple Block Diagram

Systems are often represented in a simple block diagram as shown in next Figure, where
the symbols have the following meaning:
R(s) = Laplace transform of the input variable r(t).
C(s) = Laplace transform of the output variable c(t).
E(s) = Laplace transform of the error signal e(t).
G(s) = Forward path or open loop transfer function.
H(s) = Feedback path transfer function.
GH(s) = Loop transfer function.

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System Representation in Simple Block Diagram

From last Figure (a), the following equations are written:
E(s) = R(s) – C(s) H(s)
E(s) G(s) = C(s)
[R(s) – C(s) H(s)]G(s) = C(s)
R(s) G(s) =C(s) [1+H(s) G(s)]
Re-arranging the terms, we get

Last Equation is called the closed loop transfer function of the system.

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System Representation in Simple Block Diagram

From the last transfer function, the characteristic equation is written as,
F(s) = 1 + G H(s) = 0
For example, if G(s) = [10/s(s + 2)] and H(s) = (s + 5) the following closed loop T.F. is
obtained.

The characteristic equation is written as:

ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS 23

Transfer Function Model of Electrical Network

Example (1):
Determine the T.F. 𝑽𝑶 (𝒔)/𝑽𝒊 (𝒔) for the electrical network shown in next Figure.

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Transfer Function Model of Electrical Network

Solution (1):
For the circuit shown in last Figure the
following Kirchhoff’s loop equation is written:
(a)

Taking Laplace transform on both sides of

the above equations we get:
Dividing the above equations one by the
other we get:
(c)

(b) It is to be noted, the time function is written

with lower case letters and the s functions are
written with upper case letters.

ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS 25

Transfer Function Model of Electrical Network

Solution (1):
By using MATLAB

Code in MATLAB
Output

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Transfer Function Model of Electrical Network

Example (2):
Determine the T.F. 𝑽𝑶 (𝒔)/𝑽𝒊 (𝒔) for the electrical network shown in next Figure.

ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS 27

Transfer Function Model of Electrical Network

Solution (2):
For the circuit shown in last Figure the
following Kirchhoff’s loop equation is written:

The Transfer Function is:

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Transfer Function Model of Electrical Network

Solution (2):
By using MATALB:

Code in MATLAB

Output
ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEMS 29

ACS SANA’A UNIVERSITY DR. ADEL RAWEA

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