Definitions

• Sets : A set is a well-defined collection of objects. The objects in a set can be anything:
numbers, peoples, letters, rivers etc. These objects are called the elements or members of
the set.

• A binary operation * on a set is a function from S X S into S. For each 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑆×𝑆, we

will denote the element ∗ ((𝑎, 𝑏)) of S by 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏.

• Example : our usual addition + is a binary operation on the set R.

Group : A group 𝐺,∗ is a set G, closed under binary operation *, the following axioms satisfied

1. for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺, we have 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑐

2. There is an element 𝑒 in G such that for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺,

𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑥. Identity element 𝒆 for 𝒙

3. Corresponding to each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there is an element 𝑎′ in 𝐺 such

that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒. Inverse a’ of a.

Example : 𝑄, + , 𝑍, + and 𝑅, +

𝑍 8 , + is not a group

Definition (Abelian group) : A group is abelian if its binary operation is commutative.

i.e., 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥
Ring : A ring 𝑅, +,: is a set 𝑅 together with two binary operations +
and : , which we call addition and multiplication, defined on 𝑅 such
that the following axioms are satisfied
1. 𝑅, + is an abelian group.
2. multiplication is associative i.e., 𝑎 : 𝑏 : 𝑐 = (𝑎 : 𝑏) : 𝑐
3. for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅, the left distributive law, 𝑎 : 𝑏 + 𝑐 = (𝑎 :
𝑏) + (𝑎 : 𝑐) and the right distributive law 𝑎 + 𝑏 : 𝑐 = 𝑎 : 𝑐 + (𝑏 :
𝑐) hold.

Example : 𝑍, +,: , 𝑄, +,: , 𝑅, +,: and 𝐶, +,:

Division Ring : Let 𝑅 be a ring with unity 1 ≠ 0. An element 𝑢 in 𝑅 is a unit
if it has a multiplicative inverse in 𝑅. If every nonzero element of 𝑅 is a unit,
then 𝑅 is a division ring.

Field : A field is a commutative division ring.

Examples : 𝑄, 𝑅 are fields. 𝑍 is not a field.

Note: Unity is the multiplicative identity element, while a unit is any

element having a multiplicative inverse.
• Field : Let 𝐹 be a set of elements 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 …. Suppose that the operations of addition and multiplication are

defined such that we can find the sum 𝑥 + 𝑦 and the product 𝑥. 𝑦 of any two elements 𝑥 and 𝑦. Then the set 𝐹 is

called a field, if the following axioms are satisfied for all the elements of the set.

1. Closure laws : For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑥 + 𝑦 and 𝑥 : 𝑦 are elements of 𝐹.

2. Commutative laws : For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑦 + 𝑥 and 𝑥 : 𝑦 = 𝑦 : 𝑥

3. Associative laws: For all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧) and 𝑥 : 𝑦 : 𝑧 = (𝑥 : 𝑦) : 𝑧

4. Distributive laws: For all 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐹, 𝑥 : 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑥 : 𝑦 + 𝑥 : 𝑧 and 𝑦 + 𝑧 : 𝑥 = 𝑦. 𝑥 + 𝑧. 𝑥

5. Identity elements : There exist in 𝐹 an element 0 and an element 1 such that for every 𝑥 in 𝐹, 𝑥 + 0 = 𝑥

and 𝑥. 1 = 𝑥. These are called the zero element and the unity element respectively.

6. Inverse elements : (a) For each 𝑥 in 𝐹 , there exists an element denoted by −𝑥, called the negative or

additive inverse of 𝑥 , such that 𝑥 + −𝑥 = 0 .

(b) For each 𝑥 ≠ 0 in 𝐹, there exists an element denoted by 𝑥 EF called the multiplicative inverse of 𝑥,
F
such that 𝑥 : 𝑥 EF = 1. The element 𝑥 EF can be written as when convenient.
G
 Vector Space
Definition : Let 𝑉 be a non-empty set with two operations:

1. Vector addition : This assigns to any 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 a sum 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉

K
2. Scalar multiplication : this assigns to any 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾 a product 𝑘𝑢

Then 𝑉 is called a vector space (over the field 𝐾) if the following axioms hold for any vectors 𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈

[A1] 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 = 𝑢 + (𝑣 + 𝑤)
V associative law

[A2] There is a vector in 𝑉, denoted by 0 and called the zero vector, such that, for

any 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, 𝑢+0=0+𝑢 =𝑢 Identity element

[A3] For each 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉, there is a vector in 𝑉, denoted by −𝑢, and called the negative

of 𝑢, such that 𝑢 + −𝑢 = −𝑢 + 𝑢 = 0. additive inverse

 [A4] 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝑢 commutative law

[M1] 𝑘 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑘𝑢 + 𝑘𝑣, for any scalars 𝑘 ∈ 𝐾

[M2] 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑢, for any scalars 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾

[M3] 𝑎 𝑏 𝑢 = 𝑎(𝑏𝑢), for any scalars 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾

[M4] 1𝑢 = 𝑢, for the unit scalar 1 ∈ 𝐾

It is denoted by (𝑉, +,:) over 𝐾 or simply 𝑉(𝐾)

Examples of vector space

Example 1: Let 𝑉 = 𝑅 M = { 𝑥F , 𝑥O , … , 𝑥M , 𝑥P ∈ 𝑅} & 𝐾 = 𝑅

Vector addition:
𝑥F , 𝑥O , … 𝑥M + 𝑦F , 𝑦O , … 𝑦M = (𝑥F + 𝑦F , 𝑥O + 𝑦O , … 𝑥M + 𝑦M )

scalar multiplication:
𝑘 : 𝑥F , 𝑥O , … 𝑥M = (𝑘𝑥F , 𝑘𝑥O , … , 𝑘 𝑥M )

𝑉, +,: is a vector space over the field 𝐾. i.e., 𝑉(𝐾) is a vector space.
Example 2 : If 𝑚 and 𝑛 are positive integers, the set of all 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices with elements from an
arbitrary field 𝐹 forms a vector space with respect to the operations of matrix addition and scalar
multiplication.

Example 3 : V = polynomial 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 𝑃 𝑡 = {𝑎a + 𝑎F 𝑥 + 𝑎O 𝑥 O + ⋯ + 𝑎M 𝑥 M , 𝑎P ∈ 𝑅, 𝑛 = 1,2,3 … }=set of

all polynomials. 𝑉 is a vector space over R.

efg e fhig
Example 4 : Consider the linear differential equation aa + 𝑎F + ⋯ + 𝑎M 𝑦 = 0 (1)
eG f eG fhi

in which 𝑎a , 𝑎F , … 𝑎M are real constants.

The set 𝑉 of all real solutions of (1) is not empty, because the zero function is a solution. Hence 𝑉
vector space over R.
Linear combinations, spanning sets
• Linear combinations : Let 𝑉 be a vector space over a field 𝐾. A vector 𝑣 in
𝑉 is a linear combination of vectors 𝑢F, 𝑢O, … , 𝑢M in 𝑉 if there exist scalars
𝑎F, 𝑎O, … , 𝑎M 𝑖𝑛 𝐾 such that 𝑣 = 𝑎F𝑢F + 𝑎O𝑢O + ⋯ + 𝑎M 𝑢M

• Alternatively, 𝑣 is a liner combination of 𝑢F, 𝑢O, … 𝑢M if there is a solution to

the vector equation 𝑣 = 𝑥F𝑢F + 𝑥O𝑢O + ⋯ + 𝑥M 𝑢M where 𝑥F, 𝑥O, … 𝑥M are
unknown scalars.
Spanning sets

• Let 𝑉 be a vector space over 𝐾. Let 𝑆 = 𝑢F , 𝑢O , … 𝑢k , 𝑢P ∈ 𝑉. The

spanning set of 𝑆 is defined as collection of all linear
combinations of the vectors 𝑢F , 𝑢O , … , 𝑢k and denoted by linear
Span of 𝑆 or L(S).

i.e., L(𝑆) = { 𝑎F 𝑢F + 𝑎O 𝑢O + ⋯ + 𝑎k 𝑢k , 𝑎P ∈ 𝐾}
Subspace
Definition : Let 𝑉 be a vector space over a field 𝐾 and let 𝑊 be a subset of V.
Then 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉 if 𝑊 is itself a vector space over 𝐾 with respect to
the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication on 𝑉.

Example 1 : Let 𝑉 = 𝑅O and 𝐾 = 𝑅. Let 𝑊 = { 𝑥, 0 , 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅}

𝑥 𝑧
Example 2: Let 𝑉 = 𝑀O×O and 𝐾 = 𝑅. Let 𝑊 = 𝑧 𝑦 , 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅
Theorem 1 : A subset 𝑊 of a vector space 𝑉(𝐾) is a subspace of 𝑉 if and only if
a) 𝑊 in not empty
b) 𝑊 is closed under vector addition. i.e., if 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 are in 𝑊, 𝑢 + 𝑣 also in 𝑊
c) 𝑊 is closed under scalar multiplication. i.e., for every 𝑢 𝑖𝑛 𝑊, 𝑘𝑢 is also in 𝑊 where 𝑘 ∈
𝐾.

Theorem 2 : A subset 𝑊 of a vector space 𝑉(𝐾) is a subspace of 𝑉 if and only if

a) 𝑊 in not empty &
b) For each pair of vectors 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊 and all scalars 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐾, the vector 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑣 ∈ 𝑊.
Algebra of subspaces

Theorem 3 : The intersection of any two subspaces 𝑈 and 𝑊 of a

vector space 𝑉 is also a subspace.

Theorem 4 : The union of two subspaces 𝑈 and 𝑊 is a subspace if and

only if one is contained in the other.

i.e., Union of two subspaces is not necessarily a subspace.

Definition: Let 𝑈 and 𝑊 be subspaces of a vector space 𝑉. The
sum of 𝑈 and 𝑊 , written 𝑈 + 𝑊 is the set of all vectors of the
form 𝑢 + 𝑤 where 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊.

i.e., 𝑈 + 𝑊 = {𝑢 + 𝑤, 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊}

It is also known as the linear sum of the two subspaces of 𝑈 and

𝑊.

Theorem : The sum 𝑈 + 𝑊 of the subspaces 𝑈 and 𝑊 of 𝑉is also a

subspace of 𝑉.
Definition : Let 𝑈 and 𝑊 be subspaces of a vector space of V.
Then the space 𝑉 is said to be the direct sum of 𝑈 and 𝑊 if every
vector 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 can be written in one and only one way as 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑤
where 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤 ∈ 𝑊.

Theorem : The vector space 𝑉 is the direct sum of its subspaces 𝑈

and 𝑊 , if and only if (i) 𝑉 = 𝑈 + 𝑊 and (ii) 𝑈 ∩ 𝑊 = 0 .
Linear dependence and independence
Let 𝑉 be a vector space over a field 𝐾. The vectors 𝑣F , 𝑣O , … , 𝑣k in 𝑉

• Linear dependence : We say that the vectors 𝑣F , 𝑣O , … , 𝑣M in 𝑉 are linearly

dependent if there exist scalars 𝑎F , 𝑎O , … , 𝑎k in 𝐾, not all of them 0, such that
𝑎F 𝑣F + 𝑎O 𝑣O + ⋯ + 𝑎k 𝑣k = 0

Otherwise, we say that the vectors are linearly independent.

A set 𝑆 = {𝑣F , 𝑣O , … , 𝑣k } of vectors in 𝑉 is linearly dependent or independent

according as the vectors 𝑣F , 𝑣O , … 𝑣k are linearly dependent or independent.
• Echelon form of a matrix:

A matrix is called an echelon matrix, or is said to be in echelon form, if the following two
conditions hold (where a leading nonzero element of a row of 𝐴 is the first nonzero element in
the row):
1. All zero rows, if any, are at the bottom of the matrix
2. Each leading nonzero entry in a row is to the right of the leading nonzero entry in the
preceding row.

1 2 3 4 5
Example : 0 6 0 8 9
0 0 0 3 0
0 0 0 0 0
Remarks
1. Suppose 0 is one of the vectors in 𝑣F , 𝑣O , … 𝑣k , say 𝑣F = 0. Then the vectors must be
linearly dependent.

2. Suppose 𝑣 is non zero vector. Then 𝑣, by itself, is linearly independent.

3. Suppose two of the vectors 𝑣F , 𝑣O , … 𝑣k are equal or one is a scalar multiple of other, say
𝑣F = 𝑘𝑣O . Then the vectors must be linearly dependent.

4. If the set {𝑣F , 𝑣O , … 𝑣k } is linearly independent, then any rearrangement of the vectors
{𝑣Pi , 𝑣Pz , … 𝑣P{ } is also linearly independent.

5. If a set 𝑆 of vectors in linearly independent, then any subset of 𝑆 is linearly

independent. Alternatively, if S contains a linearly dependent subset, then S is linearly
dependent.
Basis and Dimension
Definition A: A set 𝑆 = {𝑢F , 𝑢O , … 𝑢M } of vectors is a basis of 𝑉 if it has
the following two properties:
(1) 𝑆 is linearly independent.
(2) 𝑆 spans 𝑉.

Definition B: A set 𝑆 = {𝑢F , 𝑢O , … 𝑢M } of vectors is a basis of 𝑉 if every

𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 can be written uniquely as a linear combination of the basis
vectors.
Theorem : Let 𝑉 be a vector space such that one basis has ‘m’ elements
and another basis has ‘n’ element. Then m=n.

vA vector space 𝑉 is said to be of finite dimension n or n-

dimensional, written 𝐝𝐢𝐦 𝑽 = 𝒏, if 𝑉 has a basis with n elements.

vSuppose a vector space 𝑉 does not have a finite basis. Then 𝑉 is said
to be of infinite dimensional vector space.
Theorems on Basis
Theorem : Let 𝑉 be a vector space of finite dimension n. Then

1. Any n+1 or more vectors in 𝑉 are linearly dependent

2. Any linearly independent set 𝑆 = {𝑢F , 𝑢O , … , 𝑢M } with n elements is a basis of 𝑉.

3. Any spanning set 𝑇 = 𝑣F , 𝑣O , … . 𝑣M of 𝑉 with n elements is a basis of 𝑉.

Theorem : Suppose 𝑆 spans a vector space 𝑉. Then

1. Any maximum number of linearly independent vectors in 𝑆 form a basis of 𝑉.

2. Suppose one deletes from 𝑆 every vector that is a linear combination of

preceding vectors in 𝑆. Then the remaining vectors form a basis of 𝑉.

Theorem : Let 𝑉 be a vector space of finite dimension and let 𝑆 = {𝑢F , 𝑢O , … 𝑢‚ } be a
set of linearly independent vectors in 𝑉. Then 𝑆 is a part of a basis of 𝑉. i.e., 𝑆 may
be extended to a basis of 𝑉.

Theorem : Let 𝑊 be a subspace of an n-dimensional vector space 𝑉. Then dim 𝑊 ≤

𝑛. In particular, if dim 𝑊 = 𝑛, then 𝑊 = 𝑉.

Theorem : If 𝑈 and 𝑊 are finite dimensional subspace of a vector space 𝑉, then 𝑈 +

𝑊 has finite dimension and

dim(𝑈 + 𝑊) = dim 𝑈 + dim 𝑊 − dim 𝑈 ∩ 𝑊

 Inner product space
• The definition of a vector space 𝑉 involves an arbitrary field 𝐾. Here we first restrict 𝐾 to be the
real field 𝑅, in which case 𝑉 is called a real vector space; in the case of 𝐾 = 𝐶, the vector space 𝑉 is

complex vector space.

• Definition: Let 𝑉 be a real vector space. Suppose to each pair of vectors 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 there is assigned a
real number, denoted by 𝑢, 𝑣 . This function is called a (real) inner product or dot product on 𝑉 if

it satisfies the following axioms :

1. Linear property : 𝑎𝑢F + 𝑏𝑢O , 𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑢F , 𝑣 + 𝑏 𝑢O , 𝑣

2. Symmetric property : 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑣, 𝑢

3. Positive definite property : 𝑢, 𝑢 ≥ 0; and 𝑢, 𝑢 = 0 if and only if 𝑢 = 0.

The vector space 𝑉 with an inner product is called a (real) inner product space.
Examples of Inner product space
• Example 1: 𝑅 O (𝑅)
< 𝑢, 𝑣 > = < 𝑢F, 𝑢O , 𝑣F, 𝑣O > = 3𝑢F𝑣F + 2 𝑢O𝑣O is an inner product on
𝑅O 𝑅 .

• Example 2: 𝑉 = 𝑅 M 𝑅 . Let 𝑢 = 𝑢F , 𝑢O , … . 𝑢M & 𝑣 = (𝑣F , 𝑣O , … . , 𝑣M )

< 𝑢, 𝑣 > = 𝑢F 𝑣F + 𝑢O 𝑣O + ⋯ + 𝑢M 𝑣M is an inner product on 𝑅 M (𝑅)

• Example 3: Let 𝑉 be the vector space of real continuous functions on

the interval 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏, a and b being positive.
•
< 𝑓, 𝑔 > = ∫Ž 𝑓 𝑡 𝑔 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 in an inner product on 𝑉.
• Example 4: Let 𝑉 be the vector space of 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices over 𝑅.
< 𝐴, 𝐵 > = 𝑡𝑟 𝐴‘ 𝐵 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴‘ 𝐵

• Example 5: Let 𝑉 be the vector space of real polynomials of degree ≤ 𝑛.

< 𝑝 𝑥 , 𝑞 𝑥 > = 𝑎a 𝑏a + 𝑎F 𝑏F + ⋯ + 𝑎M 𝑏M is an inner product,

where 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑎a + 𝑎F 𝑡 + 𝑎O 𝑡 O + ⋯ + 𝑎M 𝑡 M & 𝑞 𝑥 = 𝑏a + 𝑏F 𝑡 + 𝑏O 𝑡 O +
⋯ + 𝑏M 𝑡 M
Complex inner product space
• Definition : Let 𝑉 be a complex vector space. Suppose to each pair of vectors 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉
there is assigned a complex number, denoted by 𝑢, 𝑣 . This function is called a (complex)
inner product or dot product on 𝑉 if it satisfies the following axioms :
1. Linear property : 𝑎𝑢F + 𝑏𝑢O , 𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑢F , 𝑣 + 𝑏 𝑢O , 𝑣
2. Symmetric property : 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑣, 𝑢
3. Positive definite property : 𝑢, 𝑢 ≥ 0; and 𝑢, 𝑢 = 0 if and only if 𝑢 = 0.

The vector space 𝑉 over 𝐶 with an inner product is called a (complex) inner product space.
Distance and angle in two dimensional space
• In two dimensional space, 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

𝑣
𝑃(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )
𝜃 𝑢
O
𝑂

• The length of u , 𝑢 = 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑥12 + 𝑦12 = < 𝑢, 𝑢 >F/O

• The distance between 𝑢 and 𝑣 ,

𝑑 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑢 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 2 =< 𝑣 − 𝑢, 𝑣 − 𝑢 >F/O

𝑥1 𝑥2 +𝑦1 𝑦2 š›,œ•
• The angle between the vectors 𝑢 and 𝑣 , cos 𝜃 = =
› .| œ |
𝑥12 +𝑦12 . 𝑥22 +𝑦22
Norm of a vector
• The inner product 𝑢, 𝑢 is nonnegative for any vector 𝑢. Thus its positive square root exists.
This nonnegative number is called the norm or length of 𝑢.

𝑢 = 𝑢, 𝑢

i.e., 𝑢 O = 𝑢, 𝑢

Remarks :

1. If 𝑢 = 1 or equivalently, if 𝑢, 𝑢 = 1, then 𝑢 is called a unit vector and is said to be

normalized.

2. Every nonzero vector 𝑣 in 𝑉 can be multiplied by the reciprocal of its length to obtain the
F
unit vector 𝑣Ÿ = 𝑣
œ
Properties of inner product
• If 𝑉 is an inner product space, then for any vectors 𝑢, 𝑣 in 𝑉,

1. < 𝑢, 𝑣 > ≤ 𝑢 | 𝑣 | (Cauchy-Schwarz inequality)

(This equality hold good, iff, 𝑢 and 𝑣 are linearly dependent)

2. 𝑅𝑒 < 𝑢, 𝑣 > ≤ 𝑢 | 𝑣 |

3. 𝑢 + 𝑣 ≤ 𝑢 + | 𝑣 | (Triangle inequality )

2 2 2 2
4. 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑢−𝑣 =2 𝑢 + 𝑣 (parallelogram law)
• Orthogonality : Two vectors 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 where 𝑉 is an inner product space are said
to be orthogonal (or perpendicular) if < 𝑢, 𝑣 > = 0 .

• Orthonormal set: A set {𝑢𝑖 } of vectors in 𝑉 is said to be orthogonal, if all the pairs
of distinct vectors are orthogonal.

i.e., if < 𝑢𝑖 , 𝑢𝑗 > = 0 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

• Orthonormal set : The set is said to be orthonormal, if its is orthogonal and if each
𝑢𝑖 has length 1

i.e., (i) < 𝑢𝑖 , 𝑢𝑗 > = 0 for 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 and

(ii) 𝑢𝑖 = 1
Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization process
• Suppose {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 } is a basis of an inner product space 𝑉. One can use this basis to
construct an orthogonal basis {𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , … , 𝑤𝑛 } of 𝑉 as follows. Set

𝑤1 = 𝑣1

<𝑣2 ,𝑤1 >

𝑤2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑤
<𝑤1 ,𝑤1 > 1

<𝑣3 ,𝑤1 > <𝑣3 ,𝑤2 >

𝑤3 = 𝑣3 − 𝑤 − 𝑤
<𝑤1 ,𝑤1 > 1 <𝑤2 ,𝑤2 > 2

….

<𝑣𝑛 ,𝑤1 > <𝑣𝑛 ,𝑤2 > <𝑣𝑛 ,𝑤𝑛−1 >

𝑤𝑛 = 𝑣𝑛 − 𝑤 − 𝑤 − ⋯− 𝑤
<𝑤1 ,𝑤1 > 1 <𝑤2 ,𝑤2 > 2 <𝑤𝑛−1 ,𝑤𝑛−1 > 𝑛−1

This construction process is known as the Gram-Schimdt orthogonalization process.