Information Processing

by Imed Bouchrika, Phd, 2021 https://research.com/education/what-is-information-

processing-theory

Information processing theory is an approach to cognitive development studies that

aims to explain how information is encoded into memory. It is based on the idea that
humans do not merely respond to stimuli from the environment. Instead, humans process
the information they receive. While experts believe that the brain’s mechanisms and
functions are relatively simple, the magnitude and scope of neural networks and their
behaviors are quite powerful as a whole (Wang, Liu, & Wang, 2003).

Origins of Information Processing Theory

George Armitage Miller was the first to put forth the idea of the theory of information
processing. He was one of the original founders of cognition studies in psychology. His
studies are based on Edward C. Tolman’s sign and latent learning theories, which
proposes that learning is an internal and complex process which involves mental
processes (Çeliköz, Erişen, & Şahin, 2019).

Miller discovered the capacity of the working memory, which can generally hold up to
seven plus or minus two items. Additionally, he coined the term “chunking” when
describing the functionalities of short-term memory. Aside from Miller, John William
Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin are also associated with the Cognitive Information
Processing Theory. This refers to the proposed multi-stage theory of memory, which is one
of the leading models of information processing theory (Sala, 2007).

Elements of Information Processing Theory

While major models of information processing theory vary, they are mostly composed of
three main elements (Çeliköz, Erişen, & Şahin, 2019):

1. Information stores – The different places in the mind where information is stored,
such as sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory, semantic
memory, episodic memory, and more.

2. Cognitive processes – The various processes that transfer memory among

different memory stores. Some of the processes include perception, coding,
recording, chunking, and retrieval.

3. Executive cognition – The awareness of the individual of the way information is

processed within him or her. It also pertains to knowing their strengths and
weaknesses. This is very similar to metacognition.

Models of Information Processing Theory

Atkinson and Shiffrin Model

John William Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed the multi-store model in 1968 to
illustrate their view of human memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1977). The model shows the
three subsections of human memory and how they work together.

3 Stages of information processing? They are as follows:

Educ204- mlpios
 1. Sensory Memory – It holds the information that the mind perceives through
various senses such as visual, olfactory, or auditory information. These sense
organs often receive a barrage of stimuli all the time. However, most are ignored
and forgotten by the mind to prevent getting overwhelmed. When sensory
information engages and gets the attention of the mind, it is transferred to short-
term memory.

2. Short-Term Memory (Working Memory) – Information in short-term memory

only lasts around 30 seconds. Cognitive abilities affect how individuals process
information in working memory. Additionally, attention and focus on the most
important information also play an important role in encoding it into long-term
memory. Furthermore, repetition significantly helps the ability to remember details
for a long time.

3. Long-Term Memory – It is thought that long-term memory has an unlimited

amount of space as it can store memories from a long time ago to be retrieved at a
later time. Various methods are used to store information in the long-term memory
such as repetition, connecting information, relating information to meaningful
experience or other information, and breaking up the information into smaller
chunks.

Baddeley and Hitch Model of Working Memory

Educ204- mlpios
 Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed the model of working memory back in
1974. They provided an in-depth understanding of the mind and how it processes
information. Four more elements are added to further illustrate the information processing
theory (Goldstein & Mackewn, 2005), namely:

1. Central executive – It is considered the control center of the mind where

information processes are regulated between various memory stores. It controls
and implements the cognitive processes that encode and retrieve information.
Additionally, the central executive receives information from the visuospatial
sketchpad, episodic buffer, and phonological loop. The frontal lobe of the brain is
thought to house the central executive, as this is where all active decisions are
processed.

2. Phonological loop – It works closely with the central executive and holds auditory
information. Furthermore, it is composed of two sub-components:

o Phonological store – It holds auditory information for a short period.

o Articulatory rehearsal process – It stores the information for longer

periods of time through rehearsal (Baddeley & Hitch, 2019).

3. Visuospatial sketch pad – It is considered another part of the central executive

that holds spatial and visual information. It helps the mind imagine objects and
maneuver through the environment.

4. Episodic buffer – Baddeley later added the fourth element of the model, which
also holds information. It increases the capability of the mind to store information.
He believed that the episodic buffer transfers information between short-term
memory, perception, and long-term memory. As it is still relatively new, research is
still conducted as to its specific mechanisms (Goldstein & Mackewn, 2005).

Educ204- mlpios
Analogy Between Computer and Human is Limited

The information processing theory likens the mind to a computer due to the following
aspects:

1. Combining or connecting new information with stored information reveals new

information that can provide solutions to various problems.

2. A computer has a central processing unit which has limited computing power.
Similarly, the central executive in humans has a limited capacity that affects the
human attentional system.

One of the obvious limitations of this analogy is the capacity of the human brain to
store information that is on the order of 108432 bits. That means the capacity of human
memory is excessively better than a computer’s (Wang, Liu, & Wang, 2003). This quantity
gap between a computer and a human brain means the latter can accommodate
processes that the former simply cannot. Also, the analogy also does not consider the
motivational and emotional factors that affect a human’s cognition.

The Models Assume Serial Processing

Existing models of information processing theory assume serial processing, which

means one process needs to be completed before the next process begins. This is very
similar to how a computer functions, hence the analogy. However, the mind is capable of
parallel processing, which means simultaneous processing of various inputs with varying
Educ204- mlpios
quality (Laberge & Samuels, 1974). Such ability of the human brain depends on the
processes needed to accomplish a task and/or the amount of practice and the ability of
the individual.

For example, a touch typist is able to read passages while typing it on the keyboard.
On the other hand, a novice typist would focus on a letter or a word at a time.

Organizational Benefits of Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory can be extended beyond individuals. Just like a

human mind, an organization is also an entity that processes information as part of its
critical functionalities. As such, the concepts in the information processing theory can be
applied to organizations.

There are four primary stages of processing information in organizations which usually,
but not always, occur in order (Kmetz, 2020):

1. Acquisition or retrieval – Individuals in the organization receive or seek

information. The source of information can come from within the organization, such
as knowledge base, experts, or even performance review comments from
employees. The information can also originate from outside the organization
through other entities, third-party experts, and more.

2. Storage – It may initially occur in the individuals’ memories. Storing may also
occur in other media such as computers, databases, or servers. Storing is a crucial
part of the entire information processing workflow so that other members of the
organization can access the information when needed. It is also important for
learning as the organization can learn from its past experiences through the stored
information.

3. Transformation – It happens when individuals modify or transform information

that is received or in storage. This may include analysis, expansion, or compression
that will help them in decision-making. Transforming can include extracting or
deriving result from new information.

4. Transmission – The information from one of the first three stages are distributed
to others. It may include reporting or presenting to relevant stakeholders.

Information Processing Theory and Its Current Areas of Research

Information processing theory is currently being used in various industries and

areas of study. Beyond the individual, the concepts, models, and ideas in information
processing are being applied to various entities such as:

 Business – Information processing theory has been used to describe organizational

behavior (an example is discussed in the previous section). For example, various
models are used to understand how businesses utilize market information, how
they decide which information is relevant or important, and how it affects their
long-term strategies (Rogers, Miller, & Judge, 1999).

Educ204- mlpios
  Family unit – The theory is used to understand family systems that include
attending, sensing, and encoding of stimuli within the family as a whole or the
individuals. A family unit then develops mutual and individual schemes that affect
how information is processed and attended to. The schemes can be examined to
describe family dynamics, culture, and relationships (Ariel, 1987).

 Artificial intelligence (AI) – Information processing theory was developed in

cognitive psychology and the desire of scientists and experts to understand how
the human mind works. AI studies aim to understand human cognition and replicate
the processes in machines such as natural language processing, memory encoding,
information retrieval, learning, and more (Langley, 2016).

References:

1. Ariel, S. (1987). An information processing theory of family

dysfunction. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 24 (3S), 477-
495. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0085745

2. Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1977). Human memory: A proposed system and its
control processes. Human Memory, 7-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-
121050-2.50006-5

3. Baddeley, A. (2006). Working Memory. In S. Pickering (Ed.), Working Memory and

Education, 1-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012554465-8/50003-x

Educ204- mlpios