Republic of the Philippines

BOHOL ISLAND STATE UNIVERSITY

Main Campus
6300 Tagbilaran City
Vision: A premiere S&T university for the formation of world-class and virtuous human resource for sustainable development in Bohol and the country.
Mission: BISU is committed to provide quality higher education in the arts and sciences, as well as in the professional and technological fields; undertake research
and development, and extension services for the sustainable development of Bohol and the country.

PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS

Statistics - it is the branch of science that deals with the collection, organization, presentation,
analysis, and interpretation of data.

- it is also a set of numerical figures.

Two Major Fields in Statistics:

1. Applied Statistics – concerned with the procedures and techniques used in the collection,
organization, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data.

2. Theoretical/Mathematical – concerned with the development of the mathematical

foundations of the methods used in applied statistics.

Two Major Areas in Applied Statistics

1. Descriptive Statistics – this branch of statistics deals with the gathering, classification, analysis
and description of a group of data without making inferences or conclusions applicable to a larger
group of data. Its purpose is to tell something about the particular group of observation.

2. Inferential Statistics – this division of statistical study deals with the analysis of samples of a
given population with a view to formulating conclusions or inferences about a larger group of the
population by valid inductive reasoning applied to such samples.

Parameter – it is a summary measure describing a specific characteristic of the population.

Statistic – it is a summary measure describing a specific characteristic of the sample.

Hypothesis testing - a decision-making process for evaluating claims about a population.

Statistical hypothesis – is a conjecture about a population parameter. This conjecture may or

may not be true.

Two types of statistical hypothesis:

1. Null Hypothesis – symbolized by Ho, is a statistical hypothesis that states that there is
no difference between a parameter and a specific value, or that there is no difference between
two parameters.
2. Alternative Hypothesis – symbolized by H1, is a statistical hypothesis that states the
existence of a difference between a parameter and a specific value, or states that there is a
difference between two parameters.
Statistical test – a method of statistical inference used to decide whether the data at hand
sufficiently support a particular hypothesis.
Test value – the numerical value obtained from a statistical test.
Type 1 error- occurs if one rejects the null hypothesis when it is true.
Type 2 error -occurs if one does not reject the null hypothesis when it is false.
Level of significance - the maximum probability of committing a type 1 error. This probability is
symbolized by α (Greek letter alpha). That is, P (type 1 error) = α.
Critical value –it separates the critical region from the noncritical region. The symbol for critical
value is C.V.
Critical or rejection region - is the range of values of the test value that indicates that there is a
significant difference and that the null hypothesis should be rejected.
Noncritical or nonrejection region - is the range of values of the test value that indicates that the
difference was probably due to chance and that the null hypothesis should not be rejected.
One-tailed test - indicates that the null hypothesis should be rejected when the test value is in
the critical region on one side of the mean. A one- tailed test is either a right-tailed test or left-
tailed test, depending on the direction of the inequality of the alternative hypothesis.
Two –tailed test - the null hypothesis should be rejected when the test value is in either of the
two critical regions.

The null and alternative hypothesis are stated together, and the null hypothesis contains
equal sign, as shown ( where k represents a specified number).

Two –tailed test Right –tailed test Left –tailed test

Ho: µ = k Ho: µ ≤ k Ho: µ ≥ k
H1 : µ ≠ k H1 : µ > k H1 : µ < k

Hypothesis Testing Common Phrases

= ≠ ≥ < ≤ >
Is equal to Is not equal to Is greater than Is less than Is less than Is greater
or equal to or equal to than
Is exactly Is different Is at least Is below Is not more Is above
the same as from than
Has not Has changed Is not less than Is lower than Is at most Is higher
changed from than
from
Is the same Is not the Is smaller than Is longer
as same as than
Is decreased or Is bigger
reduced from than
Is
increased

Simplified hypothesis testing procedure:

1. Set up hypotheses and identify the claim.

2. Set up the level of significance.
3. Calculate the degrees of freedom and determine the critical value.
4. Calculate the test value.
5. Statistical decision for hypothesis testing
If test value < critical value, do not reject Ho
If test value ≥ critical value, reject Ho, accept H1.
6. State the conclusion.

As an illustration of how hypotheses should be stated, three different statistical studies

will be used as examples:

Situation A. A medical researcher is interested in finding out whether a new medication will have
any undesirable side effects. The researcher is particularly concerned with the pulse rate of the
patients who take the medication. Will the pulse rate increase, decrease, or remain unchanged
after the medication?
 Since the researcher knows that the mean pulse rate for the population under study is 82
beats per minute, the hypotheses for this situation are:
Ho: µ = 82 and H1: µ ≠ 82
The null hypothesis specifies that the mean will remain unchanged; the alternative
hypothesis states that it will be different. This test is called a two-tailed test, since the possible
side effects of the medicine could be to raise or lower the pulse rate.

Situation B. A chemist invents an additive to increase the life of an automobile battery. If the
mean lifetime of the automobile battery is 36 months, then her hypotheses are:

Ho: µ ≤ 36 and H1: µ > 36

In this situation, the chemist is interested only in increasing the lifetime of the batteries,
so her alternative hypothesis is that the mean is greater than 36 months. The null hypothesis is
that the mean is less than or equal to 36 months. This test is called right-tailed, since the interest
is in an increase only.

Situation C. A contractor wishes to lower heating bills by using a special type of insulation in
houses. If the average of the monthly heating bills is $78, her hypotheses about heating costs
with the use of insulation are:

Ho: µ ≥ $ 78 and H1: µ < $78

This test is a left-tailed test, since the contractor is interested only in lowering heating
costs.
Examples: State the null and alternative hypotheses for each conjecture.

1. A researcher thinks that if the expectant mothers use vitamin pills, the birth weight of the
babies will increase. The average birth weight of the population is 8.6 pounds.

2. An engineer hypothesizes that the mean number of defects can be decreased in a

manufacturing process of compact disks by using robots instead of humans for a certain
tasks. The mean number of defective disks per 1000 is 18.

3. A psychologist feels that playing soft music during a test will change the results of the
test. The psychologist is not sure whether the grades will be higher or lower. In the past,
the mean of the scores was 73.

Outcomes of a Hypothesis- Testing Situation

I. Claim is Ho

Reject Ho Do not reject Ho

There is enough evidence to There is not enough evidence
reject the claim. to reject the claim.

II. Claim is H1

Reject Ho Do not reject Ho

There is enough evidence to There is not enough evidence
support the claim. to support the claim.
There are two specific statistical tests used for hypotheses concerning means: the z test and t
test.

z test for a mean

𝑥̅ − µ
z=
𝜎/√𝑛

where: 𝑥̅ = sample mean

µ = hypothesized population mean
𝞼 = population standard deviation
n = sample size

Example 1: A researcher claims that the average cost of men’s athletic shoes is less than Php
4,000. He selects a random sample of 36 pairs of shoes and finds that the mean of the sample is
Php 3,500. Is there enough evidence to support the researcher’s claim at α = 0.10? Assume 𝞼 =
1,920.

Solution:
Ho : µ ≥ Php 4,000 H1: µ < Php 4,000 (claim) α = 0.10 C.V. = – 1.28

Compute the test value.

𝑋̅− µ
z=
𝜎/ √𝑛

3,500− 4,000
z=
1,920/ √36

z = -1.56

Reject null hypothesis. There is enough evidence to support the claim that the average cost of
men’s athletic shoes is less than Php 4,000.

Example 2: The average cost of rehabilitation of stroke victims is Php 24,672. To see if the average
cost of rehabilitation is different at a particular hospital, a researcher selected a random sample
of 35 stroke victims at the hospital and finds that the average cost of their rehabilitation is Php
26,343. The standard deviation of the population is Php 3,251. At α = 0.01, can it be concluded
that the average cost of stroke rehabilitation at a particular hospital is different from Php 24,672?

Solution:
Ho : µ = Php 24,672 H1: µ ≠ Php 24,672 (claim) α = 0.01 C.V. = ± 2.58

Compute the test value.

𝑋̅− µ
z=
𝜎/ √𝑛

26,343− 24,672
z=
3,251/ √35

z = 3.04

Reject null hypothesis. There is enough evidence to support the claim that the average cost of
rehabilitation at the particular hospital is different from Php 24,672.

Right-tailed test: α = 0.1, C.V. = 1.28; α = 0.05, C.V. = 1.65; α = 0.01, C.V. = 2.33

Left-tailed test: α = 0.1, C.V. = -1.28; α = 0.05, C.V. = -1.65; α = 0.01, C.V. = -2.33
Two-tailed test: α = 0.01, C.V. = ±2.58; α = 0.10, C.V. = ±1.65; α = 0.05, C.V. = ±1.96

t test for a mean

𝑥̅ − µ
t=
𝑠/√𝑛

where:
d.f. = n-1
s = sample standard deviation

Example 1: A job placement director claims that the average starting salary for nurse is Php
24,000. A sample of 10 nurses has a mean of Php 23,450.00 and standard deviation of Php 400.
Is there enough evidence to reject the director’s claim at α = 0.05?

Solution:

Ho : µ = Php 24,000 (claim) H1: µ ≠ Php 24,000 α = 0.05 d.f. = 9 C.V. = ±2.262
Compute the test value.
𝑋̅− µ
t=
𝑠/ √𝑛

23,450− 24,000
t=
400/ √10

t = -4.35

Reject the null hypothesis. There is enough evidence to reject the claim that the average salary
for nurse is Php 24,000.

Example 2: An educator claims that the average travel allowance of substitute teachers in school
districts in Palana is less than Php 60/day. A random sample of 8 school districts is selected and
daily travel allowance have a mean of Php 58.88, s = 5.08. Is there enough evidence to support
the educator’s claim at α = 0.10?

Solution:
Ho : µ ≥ Php 60 H1: µ < Php 60 (claim) α = 0.10 d.f. = 7 C.V. = - 1.415

Compute the test value.

𝑋̅− µ
t=
𝑠/ √𝑛

58.88− 60
t=
5.08/ √8

t = -0.624

Do not reject the null hypothesis. There is not enough evidence to support the claim that the
average travel allowance of substitute teachers in Palana is less than Php 60/day.

χ2 test for a variance or standard deviation

(𝑛−1)𝑠2
χ2 =
𝜎2
where:
df = n-1
s2 = sample variance
𝞼2 = population variance

Example 1: An instructor wishes to see whether the variation in scores of the 23 students in her
class is less than the variance of the population. The variance of the class is 198. Is there enough
evidence to support the claim that the variation of the students is less than the population
variance (𝞼2 = 225) at α = 0.05?

Solution:
Ho : 𝞼2 ≥ 225 H1: 𝞼2 < 225 (claim) α = 0.05 d.f. = 22 C.V. = 12.338

Compute the test value.

(𝑛−1)𝑠 2
χ2 =
𝜎2
(23−1)198
χ2 =
225

χ2 = 19.36

Do not reject the null hypothesis. There is not enough evidence to support the claim that the
variation in test scores of the instructor’s students is less than the variation in scores of the
population.

Example 2: A hospital administrator believes that the standard deviation of the number of people
using out-patient surgery per day is greater than 8. A random sample of 15 days is selected. The
data shows that 𝞼 2 = 64, s = 11.2. At α = 0.10, is there enough evidence to support the
administrator’s claim?

Solution:
Ho : 𝞼 ≤ 8 H1: 𝞼 > 8 (claim) α = 0.10 d.f. = 14 C.V. = 21.064

Compute the test value.

(𝑛−1)𝑠 2
χ2 =
𝜎2

(15−1) (11.2)2
χ2 =
64

χ2 = 27.44

Reject the null hypothesis. There is enough evidence to support the claim that the standard
deviation is greater than 8.

Example 3: A cigarette manufacturer wishes to test the claim that the variance of the nicotine
content is 0.644. Nicotine content is measured in mg. A sample of 20 cigarettes has a standard
deviation of 1.0mg. At α = 0.05, is there enough evidence to reject the manufacturer’s claim?

Solution:
Ho : 𝞼2 = 0.644 (claim) H1: 𝞼2 ≠ 0.644 α = 0.05 d.f. = 19 C.V. = 32.852 & 8.907
Compute the test value.

(𝑛−1)𝑠 2
χ2 =
𝜎2

(20−1)(1.0)2
χ2 =
0.644

χ2 = 29.5

Do not reject the null hypothesis. There is not enough evidence to reject the manufacturer’s
claim that the variance of the nicotine content of the cigarettes is equal to 0.644.

TESTING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO MEANS AND TWO VARIANCES

I. TESTING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO MEANS: LARGE SAMPLES

(̅̅̅ 𝑥2̅)− (µ1 − µ2 )

𝑥1̅− ̅̅̅
z= n1 ≥ 30 ; n2 ≥ 30
𝜎 2 𝜎 2
√ 1 + 2
𝑛1 𝑛2

Example 1: A survey found that the average hourly room rate in Quezon is Php 88.42 and the
average hourly room rate in Rizal is Php 80.61. Assume that the data were obtained from two
samples of 50 hotels each and the standard deviations of the populations are Php 5.62 and Php
4.83, respectively. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded that there is significant difference in the rates?

Solution:

Ho: µ1 = µ2 ; H1: µ1 ≠ µ2 (claim); α = 0.05 CV= ± 1.96

Compute the test value:

(̅̅̅ 𝑥2̅)− (µ1 − µ2 )

𝑥1̅− ̅̅̅
z=
𝜎 2 𝜎 2
√ 1 + 2
𝑛1 𝑛2

(88.42− 80.61)− (0)

z=
2 2
√(5.62) + (4.83)
50 50

z = 7.45

Reject null hypothesis. There is enough evidence to support the claim that the means are not
equal.

Example 2: A researcher hypothesizes that the average number of sports that colleges offer for
males is greater than the average number of sports that colleges offer for females. A sample of
the number of sports offered by the colleges is determined. At α = 0.10, is there enough evidence
to support the claim? Assume 𝞼1 and 𝞼2 = 3.3. Males: X1 = 8.60; Females: X2 = 7.90, n1 = n2 = 50.

Solution:

Ho: µ1 ≤ µ2 ; H1: µ1 > µ2 (claim); α = 0.10 CV= 1.28

Compute the test value:

 (̅̅̅ 𝑥2̅)− (µ1 − µ2 )
𝑥1̅− ̅̅̅
z=
𝜎 2 𝜎 2
√ 1 + 2
𝑛1 𝑛2

(8.60− 7.90)− (0)

z=
2 2
√(3.30) + (3.30)
50 50

z = 1.06

Do not reject null hypothesis. There is not enough evidence to support the claim that colleges
offer more sports for males than they do for females.

II. TESTING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO VARIANCES

- For the comparison of two variances or standard deviations, an F test is used.

𝑠1 2
F= 2
𝑠2

s1 2 = larger of the two variances.

There are two degrees of freedom:
d.f.N = n1 – 1 (the sample size from which the larger variance was obtained)
d.f.D = n2 – 1

Notes in using F test

1. The larger variance should always be placed in the numerator of the formula
regardless of the subscripts.
2. For a two-tailed test, the α value must be divided by 2 and the critical value placed on
the right side of the F curve.
3. If the standard deviations instead of the variances are given in the problem, they must
be squared for the formula for the F test.4
4. When the degrees of freedom cannot be found on the table, the closest value on the
smaller side should be used.

When one is testing the equality of two variances, these hypotheses are used:

Two –tailed test Right –tailed test Left –tailed test

Ho: 𝜎12 = 𝜎22 Ho: 𝜎12 ≤ 𝜎22 Ho: 𝜎12 ≥ 𝜎22
H1 : 𝜎12 ≠ 𝜎22 H1 : 𝜎12 > 𝜎22 H1 : 𝜎12 < 𝜎22

Example 3: A medical researcher wishes to see whether the variance of the heart rates of smokers
is different from the variance of heart rates of people who do not smoke. The samples are
selected, and the data are shown. Using α = 0.05, is there enough evidence to support the claim?

SMOKERS NONSMOKERS
𝑛1 = 26 𝑛2 =18
2
𝑠1 =36 𝑠22 =10

Solution:

Ho: 𝜎1 2 = 𝜎2 2 ; H1: 𝜎1 2 ≠ 𝜎2 2 (claim)

α = 0.025, (table H), d.f.N = 25, d.f.D = 17, CV = 2.56
Compute F test:
𝑠1 2
F= 2
𝑠2

36
F=
10

F = 3.6

Reject null hypothesis. There is enough evidence to support the claim that the variance of the
heart rates of smokers and non-smokers is different.

Example 4: An instructor hypothesizes that the standard deviation of the final exam grades in her
stat class is larger for male students than it is for the female students. The data from the final
exam for the last semester are shown. Is there enough evidence to support her claim, using α =
0.01?

MALES FEMALES
𝑛1 = 16 𝑛2 =18
𝑠1= 4.20 𝑠2 = 2.30

Solution:

Ho: 𝜎1 2 ≤ 𝜎2 2 ; H1: 𝜎1 2 > 𝜎2 2 (claim)

α = 0.01, d.f.N = 15, d.f.D = 17, CV = 3.31

Compute F test:
𝑠1 2
F= 2
𝑠2

4.202
F=
2.302

F = 3.33

Reject null hypothesis. There is enough evidence to support the claim that the standard deviation
of the final exam grades for the male students is larger than the female students.

III. TESTING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO MEANS: SMALL INDEPENDENT SAMPLES

T-test for independent samples – a test of difference between two independent groups

t test for small independent samples

1. when variances are unequal:

(̅̅̅ 𝑥2̅)− (µ1 − µ2 )

𝑥1̅− ̅̅̅
t =
𝑠2 𝑠2
√ 1 + 2
𝑛1 𝑛2

df = smaller of n1 – 1 or n2 -1

2. when variances are equal:

 (̅̅̅ 𝑥2̅)− (µ1 − µ2 )
𝑥1̅− ̅̅̅
t =
2
(𝑛 −1)𝑠1 + (𝑛2 −1)𝑠2 1 1 2
√[ 1 ][ + ]
𝑛1 +𝑛2−2 𝑛1 𝑛2

df = n1 + n2 – 2

where:
t = t-test for two independent samples
𝑥1 ̅̅̅
̅̅̅, 𝑥2 = mean values of the sample group 1 and 2
𝑠1 , 𝑠22 = the variances of the sample group 1 and 2
2

n1 ,n2 = no. of observations for group 1 and 2

Example 5: The average size of a farm in Ubay, Bohol is 191 hectares. The average size of a farm
in Pilar, Bohol is 199 hectares. The data were obtained from two samples with standard deviation
of 38 hectares and 12 hectares respectively, and a sample size of 8 and 10. Can it be concluded
at α = 0.05 that the average size of the farms in the two municipalities is different? Assumed the
populations are normally distributed.

Solution:

We will use F test first to determine whether variances are equal.

Ho: 𝜎1 2 = 𝜎2 2 ; H1: 𝜎1 2 ≠ 𝜎2 2
α = 0.05, (table H), d.f.N = 7, d.f.D = 9, CV = 4.20

Compute F test:

𝑠1 2
F=
𝑠2 2

382
F=
122

F = 10.03

Reject null hypothesis. The variances are not equal. The first formula will be used to test the
equality of the means.

Ho: µ1 = µ2 ; H1: µ1 ≠ µ2 (claim)

α = 0.05, two tailed test, df is the smaller of n 1 – 1 or n2 – 1. df = 7 , CV = ±2.365

(̅̅̅ 𝑥2̅)− (µ1 − µ2 )

𝑥1̅− ̅̅̅
t =
𝑠2 𝑠2
√ 1 + 2
𝑛1 𝑛2

(191−199)− (0)
t =
2 (12)2
√(38) +
8 10

t = - 0.57
Do not reject null hypothesis. There is not enough evidence to support the claim that the average
size of farms is different.

Example 6: A researcher wishes to determine whether the salaries of professional nurses

employed by private hospitals are higher than those of nurses employed by government owned
hospitals at α = 0.01, can she conclude that the private hospitals pay more than the government
hospitals?
Private : x1 = Php 26,800; n1 = 10 ; s1 = Php 600
Government : x2 = Php 25,400; n2 = 8 ; s2 = Php 450

Solution:
We will use F test first to determine whether variances are equal.
Ho: 𝜎1 2 = 𝜎2 2 ; H1: 𝜎1 2 ≠ 𝜎2 2
α = 0.005, (table H), d.f.N = 9, d.f.D = 7, CV = 8.51

Compute F test:

𝑠1 2
F= 2
𝑠2
6002
F=
4502

F = 1.78

Do not reject null hypothesis. The variances are equal.

Solution:

Ho: µ1 ≤ µ2 ; H1: µ1 > µ2 (claim)

(̅̅̅ 𝑥2̅)− (µ1 − µ2 )

𝑥1̅− ̅̅̅
t =
2
(𝑛 −1)𝑠1 + (𝑛2 −1)𝑠2 1 12
√[ 1 ][ + ]
𝑛1 +𝑛2−2 𝑛1 𝑛2

(26,800−25,400)− (0)
t =
(10−1)(600)2 + (8−1)(450)2 1 1
√[ ][ + ]
10+8 −2 10 8

t = 5.47

Reject null hypothesis. There is enough evidence to support the claim that the salaries paid to
nurses employed by private hospitals are higher than those paid to nurses employed by
government owned hospitals.

IV. TESTING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO MEANS: SMALL DEPENDENT SAMPLES

- Samples are considered dependent samples when the subjects are paired or matched
in some way.

General procedure for finding the test value:

1. Find the differences of the values of the pairs of data.

D = x 1 – x2
2. Find the mean of the differences.

∑
̅= 𝐷
𝐷
𝑛

3. Find the standard deviation of the differences.

𝑛 ∑ 𝐷2 −(∑ 𝐷)2
SD = √
𝑛(𝑛−1)

4. Find the test value.

̅̅̅− µ𝐷
𝐷
t= d.f. = n -1
𝑆𝐷 / √𝑛

Example 7: A physical education director claims by taking a special vitamin, a weight lifter can
increase his strength. Eight athletes are selected and given a test of strength, using the standard
bench press. After two weeks of regular training, supplemented with the vitamin, they are tested
again. Test the effectiveness of the vitamin regimen at α = 0.05. Each value in these data
represents the maximum number of pounds the athlete can bench-press. Assumed the variable
is approximately normally distributed.

Athlete 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Before (x1) 210 230 182 205 262 253 219 216
After (x2) 219 236 179 204 270 250 222 216

Solution:

Ho: µ𝐷 ≥ 0 H1: µ𝐷 < 0

α = 0.05, d.f. = 7, CV = -1.895

Before (x1) After (x2) D = x 1 – x2 D2 = (x1 – x2)2

210 219 -9 81
230 236 -6 36
182 179 3 9
205 204 1 1
262 270 -8 64
253 250 3 9
219 222 -3 9
216 216 0 0
∑ 𝐷 = -19 2
∑ 𝐷 = 209

Find the standard deviation of the differences.

𝑛 ∑ 𝐷2 −(∑ 𝐷)2
SD = √
𝑛(𝑛−1)

8(209)−(−19)2
SD = √
8(8−1)

SD = 4.84
Find the test value:

̅̅̅
𝐷 − µ𝐷
t=
𝑆𝐷 / √𝑛

−2.375− 0
t=
4.84/ √8

t = - 1.388

Do not reject null hypothesis. There is not enough evidence to support the claim that the vitamin
increases the strength of weight lifters.