STANDARD LECTURE NOTES

INFORMATION

COMMUNICATION

TECHNOLOGY FOR

ALL COURSES

AIRADS “Where quality is nurtured”

Academics Office

1. What is a computer?

A computer is an information-processing machine. It may also be

defined as a device that works under the control of stored programs
automatically accepting, storing and processing data to produce
information that is the result of that processing.

The forms of information processed include:

 Data – e.g. invoices, sales ledger and purchase ledger, payroll, stock
controls etc.
 Text – widely available in many offices with microcomputers
 Graphics – e.g. business graphs, symbols
 Images – e.g. pictures
 Voice – e.g. telephone
Processing includes creating, manipulating, storing, accessing and
transmitting.

2. Why use computers?

Use of computers has become a necessity in many fields. Computers

have revolutionized the way businesses are conducted. This is due to
the advantages that computer systems offer over manual systems.

The advantages include:

 Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other

means of processing, measured as number of instructions
executed per second.
 Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the
programs are correct, they will always give correct output. A
computer is designed in such a way that many of the
inaccuracies, which could arise due to the malfunctioning of the
equipment, are detected and their consequences avoided in a
way, which is completely transparent to the user.
 Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions
computers will produce exactly the same answer every time that
particular process is repeated.
 Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance
features, meaning that failure of one of the components does not
necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.
  Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and
access large volumes of data.
 Processing capability – A computer has the ability to execute
millions of instructions per second.

3. Computer application areas

Some of the areas that computers are used include:

 Communication – digital communication using computers is

popular and is being adopted worldwide as opposed to analogue
communication using the telephony system. Computers have also
enhanced communication through email communication,
electronic data interchange, electronic funds transfer, Internet
etc. More specific examples include:

 Banking – the banking sector has incorporated computer

systems in such areas as credit analysis, fund transfers, customer
relations, automated teller machines, home banking, and online
banking.

 Organizational management – the proliferation of

management information systems have aided greatly the
processes of managerial planning, controlling, directing as well as
decision-making. Computers are used in organization for
transaction processing, managerial control as well as decision-
support. Other specific areas where computer systems have been
incorporated include sales and marketing, accounting, customer
service etc.

 Science, research and engineering – computers used

o as research tools, complex computations
 o for simulation e.g. outer-space simulations, flight
simulations
o as diagnostic and monitoring tools,
o computerized maps using global positioning satellite (GPS)
technology
o for modern mass production methods in the auto industry
using computer driven technology

 Education– computers incorporate databases of information that

are useful in organizing and disseminating educational resources.
Such E-learning and virtual or distributed classrooms have
enabled the teaching industry to have a global reach to the
students. Computers are also used for test scoring uniform tests
done in schools, school administration and computer aided
instructions.

 Management of information materials- The Internet has

massive reference material on virtually every learning area.
Computer systems have enabled the efficient running of libraries
for information storage and retrieval.

 Manufacturing and production – computer aided design

(CAD), computer integrated manufacturing (CIM), process control
systems among other technologies are computer systems that
have revolutionized the production industry.

 Entertainment – use of computers in the entertainment industry

has increased tremendously over the years. Computers enable
high-quality storage of motion pictures and music files using high-
speed and efficient digital storage devices such as CDs, VCDs and
DVDs. The Internet is also a great source of entertainment
resources. Computer games have also become a major source of
entertainment.
  Retailing – computers are used in point of sale systems and
credit card payment systems as well as stock inventories.

 Home appliances – computers (especially embedded computers

or microprocessors) are included in household items for reasons
of economy and efficiency of such items. Major appliances such
as microwave ovens, clothes washers, refrigerators and sewing
machines are making regular use of microprocessors.

 Reservation systems – guest booking, accommodation and bills

accounting using computers in hotels have made the process to
be more efficient and faster. Airline computer reservation
systems have also enhanced and streamlined air travel across
major airlines. Major players in the industry have also adopted
online reservation systems.

 Health care and medicine – computers have played an

important role in the growth and improvement of health care that
the use of computers in medicine has become a medical specialty
in itself. Computers are used in such areas as maintenance of
patient records, medical insurance systems, medical diagnosis,
and patient monitoring.

4. History of Computers

The first electronic computers were produced in the 1940s. Since then,
a series of breakthroughs in electronics have occurred leading to great
improvements in the capacity, processing speed and quality of
computer resources.

The evolution of computerization in business may be summarised as:

 1870s: Development of the typewriter allows speedier
communication and less copying.

 1920s: Invention of the telephone enables both Wide Area Networks

(WAN) and Local Area Networks (LAN) communication in real time.
This marks the beginning of telecommunication.

 1930s: Use of scientific management is made available to analyse

and rationalise.

 1940s: Mathematical techniques developed in World War II

(operations research) are applied to the decision making process.

 1950s: Introduction of copying facilitates cheap and faster

document production, and the (limited) introduction of Electronic
Data Processing (EDP) speeds up large scale transaction processing.

 1960s: Emergence of Management Information Systems (MIS)

provides background within which office automation can develop.

 1970s: Setting up of telecommunication networks to allow for

distant communication between computer systems. There is
widespread use of word processors in text editing and formatting,
advancement in personal computing- emergence of PCs. Use of
spreadsheets.

 1980s: Development of office automation technologies that combine

data, text, graphics and voice. Development of DSS, EIS and
widespread use of personal productivity software.

 1990s: Advanced groupware; integrated packages, combining most

of the office work- clerical, operational as well as management.
 2000s: Wide spread use of Internet and related technology in many
spheres of organisations including electronic commerce (e-
commerce), e-learning, e-health

Landmark Inventions

 ~500 B.C. - counting table with beads

 ~1150 in China - ABACUS - beads on wires
 1642 Adding machine - Pascal
 1822 Difference machine/Analytic Engine - design by Babbage
 1890 Holerith punched card machine - for U.S. census
 1944 Mark I (Harvard) - first stored program computer
 1947 ENIAC (Penn)- first electronic stored program computer
 1951 UNIVAC - first commercial computer; 1954 first installation
 1964 IBM - first all-purpose computer (business + scientific)
 1973 HP-65, hand-held, programmable ‘calculator’
 ~1975 Altair, Intel - first Micro-computer; CPU on a “chip”
5. Computer Generations

The view of computers into generations is based on the fundamental

technology employed. Each new generation is characterized by greater
speed, larger memory capacity and smaller overall size than the
previous one.

i. First Generation Computers (1946 – 1957)

 Used vacuum tubes to construct computers.

 These computers were large in size and writing programs
on them was difficult.
 The following are major drawbacks of First generation
computers.
o The operating speed was quite slow.
o Power consumption was very high.
o It required large space for installation.
o The programming capability was quite low.
 o Cumbersome to operate – switching between
programs, input and output

ii. Second Generation Computers (1958 - 1964)

 Replaced vacuum tubes with transistors.

 The transistor is smaller, cheaper and dissipates less heat
than a vacuum tube.
 The second generation also saw the introduction of more
complex arithmetic and logic units, the use of high – level
programming languages and the provision of system
software with the computer.
 Transistors are smaller than electric tubes and have higher
operating speed. They have no filament and require no
heating. Manufacturing cost was also lower. Thus the size of
the computer got reduced considerably.
 It is in the second generation that the concept of Central
Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and
input and output units were developed. The programming
languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed
during this period.

iii. Third Generation Computers (1965 - 1971)

 Had an integrated circuit.

 Although the transistor technology was a major
improvement over vacuum tubes, problems remained. The
transistors were individually mounted in separate packages
and interconnected on printed circuit boards by separate
wires. This was a complex, time consuming and error-prone
process.
 The early integrated circuits are referred to as small-scale
integration (SSI). Computers of this generation were smaller
in size, lower cost, larger memory and processing speed
was much higher.
 iv. Fourth Generation Computers (1972 - Present)

 Employ Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and Very Large Scale

Integrated (VLSI) circuit technology to construct computers.
Over 1,000 components can be placed on a single
integrated-circuit chip.

v. Fifth Generation Computers

 These are computers of 1990s

 Use Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuit technology to
build computers. Over 10,000 components can be
incorporated on a single integrated chip.
 The speed is extremely high in fifth generation computer.
Apart from this it can perform parallel processing. The
concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to
allow the computer to take its own decision.

6. Classification of computers

Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below:

Classification by processing
This is by how the computer represents and processes the data.

a) Digital computers are computers which process data that is

represented in the form of discrete values by operating on it in
steps. Digital computers process data represented in the form of
discrete values like 0, 1, 2. They are used for both business data
processing and scientific purposes since digital computation
results in greater accuracy.

b) Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and

process-controlled purposes. Outputs are represented in the form
of graphs. Analogue computers process data represented by
 physical variables and output physical magnitudes in the form of
smooth graphs.

c) Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined

features of digital and analog computers. They offer an efficient
and economical method of working out special problems in
science and various areas of engineering.

Classification by purpose
This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put.

a) Special purpose computers are used for a certain specific function

e.g. in medicine, engineering, manufacturing.

b) General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of

tasks e.g. accounting, word processing

Classification by generation
This is a time-based classification coinciding with technological
advances.
The computers are categorized as First generation through to Fifth
generation.

a) First generation. Computers of the early 1940s. Used a circuitry of

wires and vacuum tubes. Produced a lot of heat, took a lot of
space, were very slow and expensive. Examples are LEO 1 and
UNIVAC 1.

b) Second generation. Computers of the early 1950s. Made use of

transistors and thus were smaller and faster. (200KHz). Examples
include the IBM system 1000.
 c) Third generation. Computers of the 1960s. Made use of Integrated
Circuits. Speeds of up to 1MHz. Examples include the IBM system
360.

d) Fourth generation. Computers of the 1970s and 1980s. Used Large

Scale Integration (LSI) technology. Speeds of up to 10MHz.
Examples include the IBM 4000 series.

e) Fifth generation. Computers of the 1990s. Use Very Large Scale

Integration (VLSI) technology and have speeds up to 400MHz and
above.

Classification by power and size/ configuration

a) Supercomputers. the largest and most powerful. Used to process

large amounts of data very quickly. Useful for meteorological or
astronomical applications. Examples include Cray and Fujitsu.

b) Mainframe computers. Large computers in terms of price, power

and size. Require a carefully controlled environment and specialist
staff to operate them used for centralized processing for large
commercial organizations. Manufacturers include International
Business Machine (IBM).

c) Minicomputers. Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere

between mainframes and microcomputers. Used as departmental
computers in large organizations or as the main computer in
medium-sized organizations. Manufacturers of minicomputers
include IBM and International Computer Limited (ICL).

d) Microcomputers. These are the personal computers commonly

used for office and leisure activities. Examples include Hewlett
 Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell. They include desktops, laptops
and palmtops.

7. Data representation in computers

Data exists as electrical voltages in a computer. Since electricity can

exist in 2 states, on or off, binary digits are used to represent data.
Binary digits, or bits, can be “0” or “1”. The bit is the basic unit of
representing data in a digital computer.
A bit is either a 1 or a 0. These correspond to two electronic/magnetic
states of ON (1) and OFF (0) in digital circuits which are the basic
building blocks of computers. All data operated by a computer and the
instructions that manipulate that data must be represented in these
units. Other units are a combination of these basic units. Such units
include:

 1 byte (B) = 23 bits = 8 bits – usually used to represent one

character e.g. ‘A’
 1 kilobyte (KB) – 210 bytes = 1024 bytes (usually considered as
1000 bytes)

 1 megabyte (MB)– 220 bytes = 1048576 bytes (usually considered

as 1000000 bytes/1000 KB)
 1 gigabyte (GB)– 230 bytes = 1073741824 bytes (usually
considered as 1,000,000,000 bytes/1000 MB)
 1 terabyte (TB) – 240 bytes = 1099511627776 bytes (usually
considered as one trillion bytes/1000 GB)

Bit patterns (the pattern of 1s or 0s found in the bytes) represent

various kinds of data:
 Numerical values (using the binary number system)
 Text/character data (using the ASCII coding scheme)
 Program instructions (using the machine language)
 Pictures (using such data formats as gif, jpeg, bmp and wmf)
  Video (using such data formats as avi, mov and mpeg)
 Sound/music (using such data formats as wav, au and mp3)

Computer data is represented using number systems and either one of

the character coding schemes.

Character Coding Schemes

(i) ASCII – American Standard Code for Information

Interchange

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is the most

common format for text files in computers and on the Internet. In an
ASCII file, each alphabetic, numeric, or special character is represented
with a 7-bit binary number (a string of seven 0s or 1s). 128 possible
characters are defined.

Unix and DOS-based operating systems use ASCII for text files.
Windows NT and 2000 uses a newer code, Unicode. IBM's S/390
systems use a proprietary 8-bit code called EBCDIC. Conversion
programs allow different operating systems to change a file from one
code to another. ASCII was developed by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI).

(ii) EBCDIC

EBCDIC is a binary code for alphabetic and numeric characters that IBM
developed for its larger operating systems. It is the code for text files
that is used in IBM's OS/390 operating system for its S/390 servers and
that thousands of corporations use for their legacy applications and
databases. In an EBCDIC file, each alphabetic or numeric character is
represented with an 8-bit binary number (a string of eight 0's or 1's).
256 possible characters (letters of the alphabet, numerals, and special
characters) are defined.
 (iii) Unicode

Unicode is an entirely new idea in setting up binary codes for text or

script characters. Officially called the Unicode Worldwide Character
Standard, it is a system for "the interchange, processing, and display of
the written texts of the diverse languages of the modern world." It also
supports many classical and historical texts in a number of languages.

Number Systems

(i) Decimal system (base 10)

This is the normal human numbering system where all numbers are
represented using base 10.The decimal system consists of 10 digits
namely 0 to 9. This system is not used by the computer for internal
data representation. The position of a digit represents its relation to the
power of ten.
E.g. 45780 = {(0×100) + (8×101) + (7×102) + (5×103) +
(4×104)}

(ii) Binary system (base 2)

This is the system that is used by the computer for internal data
representation whereby numbers are represented using base 2. Its
basic units are 0 and 1, which are referred to as BITs (BInary digiTS). 0
and 1 represent two electronic or magnetic states of the computer that
are implemented in hardware. The implementation is through use of
electronic switching devices called gates, which like a normal switch are
in either one of two states: ON (1) or OFF (0).

The information supplied by a computer as a result of processing must

be decoded in the form understandable to the user.

E.g. Number 15 in decimal is represented as 1111 in binary system:

 1111 = {(1×20) + (1×21) + (1×22) + (1×23)}
= 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 = 15

(iii) Octal system (base 8)

Since binary numbers are long and cumbersome, more convenient

representations combine groups of three or four bits into octal (base 8)
digits respectively. In octal number system, there are only eight
possible digits, that is, 0 to 7. This system is more popular with
microprocessors because the number represented in octal system can
be used directly for input and output operations. Complex binary
numbers with several 1’s and 0’s can be conveniently handled in base
eight. The binary digits are grouped into binary digits of threes and
each group is used to represent an individual octal digit.

For example: the binary number 10001110011 can be handled as 2163

octal number.

That is 010 001 110 011

2 1 6 3

(iv) Hexadecimal (base 16)

The hexadecimal number system is similar to octal system with the

exception that the base is 16 and there must be 16 digits. The sixteen
symbols used in this system are the decimal digits 0 to 9 and alphabets
A to F. Hexadecimal numbers are used because more complex binary
notations can be simplified by grouping the binary digits into groups of
four each group representing a hexadecimal digit. For example the
binary number 0001.0010.1010.0000 can be handled in base 16 as
12A0.

That is 0001 0010 1010 0000

1 2 A 0
8. Functional/Logical parts of a digital computer

The system unit houses the processing components of the computer

system. All other computer system devices are called peripherals, and
are connected directly or indirectly into the system unit.

Computer system
Communicati
on DevicesCPU

System Unit
Control Arithmetic
Unit & Logic
Unit
Input Registers (storage Outpu
Devic area) t
es Devic
es
Main Memory
(Primary
storage)

Secondary
Storage
Devices

 Input devices – Enters program and data into computer system.

 Central Processing Unit (CPU) – This is the part of the
computer that processes data. Consists of main memory, the
control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit.
 Main Memory – Temporary storage to hold programs and data
during execution/ processing.
 Control Unit – Controls execution of programs.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs actual processing of
data using program instructions.
 Output devices – Displays information processed by the
computer system.
 Storage devices – Permanent storage of data and programs
before and after it is processed by the computer system.
 Communication devices – Enable communication with other
computers.
8.1 Hardware

Refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices,

which provide support for major functions such as input, processing
(internal storage, computation and control), output, secondary storage
(for data and programs), and communication.

Hardware categories

A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output,

process, and store data and information. Computer systems are
currently built around at least one digital processing device. There are
five main hardware components in a computer system: the central
processing unit (CPU); primary storage (main memory); secondary
storage; and input and output devices.
Basic elements of hardware
The basic elements that make up a computer system are as follows:

a) Input
Most computers cannot accept data in forms customary to human
communication such as speech or hand-written documents. It is
necessary, therefore, to present data to the computer in a way that
provides easy conversion into its own electronic pulse-based forms. This
is commonly achieved by typing data using the keyboard or using an
electronic mouse or any other input device.

 Keyboard can be connected to a computer system through a

terminal. A terminal is a form of input and output device. A
terminal can be connected to a mainframe or other types of
computers called a host computer or server. There are four
types of terminals namely dumb, intelligent, network and
Internet.

 Dumb Terminal
 - Used to input and receive data only.
- It cannot process data independently.
- A terminal used by an airline reservation clerk to access
a mainframe computer for flight information is an
example of a dumb terminal
 Intelligent Terminal
- Includes a processing unit, memory, and secondary
storage.
- It uses communications software and a telephone
hookup or other communications link.
- A microcomputer connected to a larger computer by a
modem or network link is an example of an intelligent
terminal.
 Network Terminal
- Also known as a thin client or network computer.
- It is a low cost alternative to an intelligent terminal.
- Most network terminals do not have a hard drive.
- This type of terminal relies on a host computer or server
for application or system software.
 Internet Terminal
- Is also known as a web terminal.
- It provides access to the Internet and displays web
pages on a standard television set.
- It is used almost exclusively in the home.

 Direct data entry devices – Direct entry creates machine-

readable data that can go directly to the CPU. It reduces human
error that may occur during keyboard entry. Direct entry devices
include pointing, scanning and voice-input devices.

Pen input devices e.g. Lightpen

Pen input devices are used to select or input items by touching the
screen with the pen. Light pens accomplish this by using a white cell at
the tip of the pen. When the light pen is placed against the monitor, it
closes a photoelectric circuit. The photoelectric circuit identifies the
spot for entering or modifying data. Engineers who design
microprocessor chips or airplane parts use light pens.

Touch sensitive screen inputs

Touch sensitive screens, or touch screens, allow the user to execute

programs or select menu items by touching a portion of a special
screen. Behind the plastic layer of the touch screen are crisscrossed
invisible beams of infrared light. Touching the screen with a finger can
activate actions or commands. Touch screens are often used in ATMs,
information centres, restaurants, and or stores. They are popularly used
at gas stations for customers to select the grade of gas or request a
receipt at the pump (in developed countries), as well as in fast-food
restaurants to allow clerks to easily enter orders.
ii. Scanning Devices
Scanning devices, or scanners, can be used to input images
and character data directly into a computer. The scanner
digitises the data into machine-readable form.
iii. The scanning devices used in direct-entry include the
following:
 Image Scanner – converts images on a page to electronic
signals.
 Fax Machine – converts light and dark areas of an image
into format that can be sent over telephone lines.
 Bar-Code Readers – photoelectric scanner that reads
vertical striped marks printed on items.
 Character and Mark Recognition Devices – scanning
devices used to read marks on documents.

Character and Mark Recognition Device Features

 Can be used by mainframe computers or powerful

microcomputers.
  There are three kinds of character and mark recognition
devices:
- Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR)
Magnetic ink character recognition, or MICR, readers are used
to read the numbers printed at the bottom of checks in special
magnetic ink. These numbers are an example of data that is
both machine readable and human readable. The use of MICR
readers increases the speed and accuracy of processing
checks.

- Optical-character recognition (OCR)

Read special preprinted characters, such as those on utility
and telephone bills.

- Optical-mark recognition (OMR)

Reads marks on tests – also called mark sensing. Optical mark
recognition readers are often used for test scoring since they
can read the location of marks on what is sometimes called a
mark sense document. This is how, for instance, standardized
tests, such as the KCPE, SAT or GMAT are scored.

iv. Voice–input devices

Voice-Input Devices can also be used for direct input into a
computer. Speech recognition can be used for data input when it is
necessary to keep your hands free. For example, a doctor may use
voice recognition software to dictate medical notes while examining
a patient. Voice recognition can also be used for security purposes
to allow only authorized people into certain areas or to use certain
devices.

 Voice-input devices convert speech into a digital code.

 The most widely used voice-input device is the microphone.
  A microphone, sound card, and software form a voice recognition
system.

Note:

Point-of-sale (POS) terminals (electronic cash registers) use both

keyboard and direct entry.

 Keyboard Entry can be used to type in information.

 Direct Entry can be used to read special characters on price
tags.

Point-of-sale terminals can use wand readers or platform

scanners as direct entry devices.

 Wand readers or scanners reflect light on the characters.

 Reflection is changed by photoelectric cells to machine-readable
code.
 Encoded information on the product’s barcode e.g. price appear
on terminal’s digital display.

b) Storage
Data and instructions enter main storage, and are held until needed to
be worked on. The instructions dictate action to be taken on the data.
Results of the action will be held until they are required for output.

c) Control
Each computer has a control unit that fetches instructions from main
storage, interprets them, and issues the necessary signals to the
components making up the system. It directs all hardware operations
necessary in obeying instructions.
 d) Processing
Instructions are obeyed and the necessary arithmetic and logic
operations are carried out on the data. The part that does this is called
the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).

Processing devices

(i) The CPU (Central Processing Unit)

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) controls the processing of
instructions. The CPU produces electronic pulses at a predetermined
and constant rate. This is called the clock speed. Clock speed is
generally measured in megahertz, that is, millions of cycles per second.

It consists of:

o Control Unit (CU) – The electronic circuitry of the control

unit accesses program instructions, decodes them and
coordinates instruction execution in the CPU.
o Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs mathematical
calculations and logical comparisons.
o Registers – These are high-speed storage circuitry that
holds the instruction and the data while the processor is
executing the instruction.
o Bus – This is a highway connecting internal components to
each other.

(ii) Main Memory

Primary storage, also called main memory, although not a part of the
CPU, is closely related to the CPU. Main memory holds program
instructions and data before and after execution by the CPU. All
instructions and data pass through main memory locations. Memory is
located physically close to the CPU to decrease access time, that is, the
time it takes the CPU to retrieve data from memory. Although the
overall trend has been increased memory access time, memory has not
advanced as quickly as processors. Memory access time is often
measured in milliseconds, or one thousandths of a second.

e) Output
Results are taken from main storage and fed to an output device. This
may be a printer, in which case the information is automatically
converted to a printed form called hard copy or to a monitor screen for a
soft copy of data or information.

Output devices

Output is human-readable information. Input (data) is processed inside

the computer’s CPU into meaningful output (information). Output
devices translate the machine-readable information into human-
readable information.
 Punched cards: characters are coded onto an 80-column card in
columns by combining punches in different locations; a special
card reader reads the cards and translates them into transactions
for the computer. These are now used only for older applications.
 Paper tape punch

Printers

– Outputs printout on paper often referred to as hard-copy output.

Categorized according to:

(i) Printing capacity

o Character printers – Print one character at a time.

o Line printers – Print one line at a time.
o Page printers – Print a whole page at a time.

(ii) Mode of printing

 o Dot matrix printers

Forms images via pins striking a ribbon against a paper. The print head
typically have 9 or 24 pins. The images are relatively of poor quality
since dots are visible upon close inspection. Though inexpensive
compared to other types, they are noisy and low-end models are slow
(speed varies with price).

o Ink jet printers

Forms images by “shooting” tiny droplets of ink on paper. They offer

relatively good image quality with so many small dots that they are not
noticeable, even upon close inspection. They are relatively quiet
compared to dot matrix and most can print colour images.

o Laser jet printers

Forms images using copier technology – a laser/LED (Light Emitting

Diode) lights up dots to be blackened and toner sticks to these dot
positions on the paper. They have excellent image quality – so many
small dots that they are not noticeable, even upon close inspection.
They are quieter than ink jet printers.

o Thermal Printers

Forms images using heat elements and heat – sensitive paper. It is very
quiet and not widely used by home PC users. Some very expensive
colour models are available. “Ink” in these computers is wax crayons.

Plotters

Plotters are typically used for design output. They are special-purpose
output devices used to produce charts, maps, architectural drawings
and three-dimensional representations. They can produce high-quality
multi-colour documents or larger size documents. Plotters produce
documents such as blueprints or schematics.
Monitors
– Output device for soft-copy output (temporal screen display of output
which lasts as long as the monitor’s power is on). They are the most
frequently used output devices. Some are used on the desktop; others
are portable. Two important characteristics of the monitor are size and
clarity.

Voice-output devices

 Voice-output devices make sounds that resemble human speech.

 Voice-output devices use prerecorded vocalized sounds to
produce output.
 The computer “speaks” synthesized words.
 Voice output is not as difficult to create as voice input.
 Most widely used voice-output devices are stereo speakers and
headphones.
 Devices are connected to a sound card in the system unit.
 Sound card is used to capture sound as well as play it back.

Examples of voice output uses:

 Soft-drink machines, the telephone, and in cars.
 Voice output can be used as a tool for learning.
 Can help students study a foreign language.
 Used in supermarkets at the checkout counter to confirm
purchases.
 Most powerful capability is to assist the physically challenged.

Auxiliary/Secondary Storage devices

Secondary storage devices store a larger amount of data or instructions

than does main memory, on a more permanent basis. On a per
megabyte basis, secondary storage is also cheaper than primary
storage. Secondary storage is also infinitely extendable, unlike main
memory, which is finite. Secondary storage is not volatile. Secondary
storage is also more portable than primary storage – that is, it is
possible to remove it from a computer and use the device and its
contents in another.

Types of secondary storage devices

 Magnetic disks – Stores bits as magnetic spots. Magnetic disks

are similar to magnetic tapes in that areas are magnetized to
represent bits. However the disks’ read/write head can go
directly to the desired record, allowing fast data retrieval.
Magnetic disks can range from small and portable, such as
diskettes with 1.44MB of storage capacity, to large capacity fixed
hard disks, which are more expensive and less portable.
o Floppy disks (diskettes)

 5 ¼ floppy disks
 3 ½ floppy disks – The most common size with a
capacity of 1.44 MB. They are not very fast and
durable.

o Hard disks/Fixed disks – Also called hard drives. Their

capacity range from 20 to 120 GB. They are fast and
durable though not foolproof. Most are internal, but disks
that use removable cartridge are available. Disk
compression can be used to increase capacity but slows
performance.

 Optical Disks – Store bits as “pits” and “lands” on surface

of disk that can be detected (read) by a laser beam.

o CD-ROM (Compact-Disk Read Only Memory) – Only

read and cannot be erased for rewriting. Has a
capacity of 650 MB
o CD-R (Compact-Disk Recordable) / WORM (Write
Once, Read Many) – Usually blank at first and can be
written only once. Has a capacity of 650 MB
 o CD-RW (Compact Disk ReWritable) – Can written and
read more than once. Has a capacity of 650 MB.
o DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disks) – They are similar to
CDs except that it has high quality sound and high-
resolution video. Has a normal capacity of 4.7 GB and
up to 17 GB if double-sided with double layering. Uses
laser technology. They are a relatively new
technology usually used in the entertainment
industry.
 Magnetic Tapes – Magnetic tape is similar in composition
to the kind of tape found in videotapes and audiotapes. A
plastic film is coated with iron oxide, which is magnetized to
represent bits.
o Tape cartridges – Used in personal computers. Has up
to 20 GB per tape (probably even more).
o Tape reels – Used in minicomputers and mainframes.

 Other Backup Options

o Zip drive/disk – Uses special diskettes that hold 100

MB, 250 MB or 750 MB
o SyQuest drive – Uses special cartridges that hold 200
MB
 RAID - RAID stands for redundant arrays of independent or
inexpensive disks. RAID technology is fault tolerant; that is,
it allows data to be stored so that no data or transactions
are lost in the event of disk failure. RAID involves using
multiple hard disks in a special controller unit and storing
data across all the disks in conjunction with extra
reconstruction information that allows data to be recovered
if a hard disk fails.

 Storage Area Network (SAN) – A storage area network

connects servers and storage devices in a network to store
 large volumes of data. Data stored in a storage area
network can be quickly retrieved and backed up. The use
of storage area networks is likely to increase in the near
future.

 Computer Output Microfilm (COM) -Companies that

must store significant numbers of paper documents often
use computer output microfilm. These devices transfer
data directly from the computer onto the microfilm, thus
eliminating the intermediate step of printing the document
on paper. Newspapers and journals typically archive old
issues in this manner, although some are now using optical
storage devices.

Storage capacity abbreviations

 KB - kilobyte - 1000 (thousand)

 MB - megabyte - 1,000,000 (million)
 GB - gigabyte - 1,000,000,000 (billion)
 TB - terabyte - 1,000,000,000,000 (trillion)

Communication devices

 Modem - Modems allow computers (digital devices) to

communicate via the phone system (based on analog
technology). It turns the computers digital data into analog, sends
it over the phone line, and then another modem at the other end
of the line turns the analog signal back into digital data.
 Fax/modem - basic digital/analog modem enhanced with fax
transmission hardware that enables faxing of information from
computer to another fax/modem or a fax machine (NOTE: a
separate scanner must be connected to the computer in order to
use the fax/modem to transfer external documents)

Computer Memory
 Memory capability is one of the features that distinguish a computer
from other electronic devices. Like the CPU, memory is made of silicon
chips containing circuits holding data represented by on or off electrical
states, or bits. Eight bits together form a byte. Memory is usually
measured in megabytes or gigabytes.

A kilobyte is roughly 1,000 bytes. Specialized memories, such as

cache memories, are typically measured in kilobytes. Often both
primary memory and secondary storage capacities today contain
megabytes, or millions of bytes, of space.

Types of Memory

Volatile Memory types Non Volatile

RAM ROM

DRAM SDRAM EDO PROM EPROM

RAM (Random Access Memory) /RWM (Read Write Memory) – Also

referred to as main memory, primary storage or internal memory. Its
content can be read and can be changed and is the working area for
the user. It is used to hold programs and data during processing.
RAM chips are volatile, that is, they loose their contents if power is
disrupted.
Typical sizes of RAM include 32MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB and
512MB.
a. EDO – Extended Data Out
b. DRAM – Dynamic RAM
c. SDRAM – Synchronous

2. ROM (Read Only Memory) – Its contents can only be read and
cannot be changed. ROM chips is non-volatile, so the contents
aren’t lost if the power is disrupted. ROM provides permanent
storage for unchanging data & instructions, such as data from the
computer maker. It is used to hold instructions for starting the
computer called the bootstrap program.

ROM: chips, the contents, or combination of electrical circuit

states, are set by the manufacturer and cannot be changed.
States are permanently manufactured into the chip.

PROM: the settings must be programmed into the chip. After they
are programmed, PROM behaves like ROM – the circuit states
can’t be changed. PROM is used when instructions will be
permanent, but they aren’t produced in large enough quantities
to make custom chip production (as in ROM) cost effective. PROM
chips are, for example, used to store video game instructions.

Instructions are also programmed into erasable programmable

read-only memory. However, the contents of the chip can be
erased and the chip can be reprogrammed. EPROM chips are
used where data and instructions don’t change often, but non-
volatility and quickness are needed. The controller for a robot
arm on an assembly line is an example of EPROM use.
 a. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) – It is written
onto only once using special devices. Used mostly in
electronic devices such as alarm systems.
b. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) –Can
be written onto more than once.

3. Cache Memory - Cache memory is high-speed memory that a

processor can access more quickly than RAM. Frequently used
instructions are stored in cache since they can be retrieved more
quickly, improving the overall performance of the computer. Level 1
(L1) cache is located on the processor; Level 2 (L2) cache is located
between the processor and RAM.
8.2 Software

Software is detailed step-by-step sequence of instructions known as

program which guide computer hardware. A computer program is a
sequence of instructions that tell the computer hardware what to do.
Programs are written in programming languages, which consists of a
set of symbols combined according to a given syntax.
A program must be in main memory (RAM) to be executed. These
invisible, intangible components of a computer that direct and control
the operations of the hardware when processing data are referred to as
software.

Software is classified into two major types: system and application

software.

System software

Systems software consists of programs that coordinates the activities

of hardware and other programs. System software is designed for a
specific CPU and hardware class. The combination of a particular
hardware configuration and operating system is called a computer
platform. These programs manage the "behind the scenes" operation of
the computer.

Examples
 Operating systems
 Utility Programs - Utility programs often come installed on
computer systems or packaged with operating systems. Utilities
can also be purchased individually. Utility programs perform
useful tasks, such as virus detection, tracking computer jobs, and
compressing data.
 Language processors – Compilers and interpreters
Operating systems

The functions of an operating system includes:

 Perform common hardware functions
 - Accept input and store data on disks and send data to output
devices
 Provide a user interface
 Provide hardware independence
 Manage system memory
 Manage processing
 Control access to system resources
- Protection against unauthorized access
- Logins and passwords
 Manage files
- Physical storage location
- File permissions
- File access

Examples of operating systems include:

 DOS – Disk operating systemWindows 3.1, 95, 98, NT, 2000, ME,
XPLinux, Unix, MAC OS, System/7Application software
Applications software includes programs designed to help end users
solve particular problems using the computer or to perform specific
tasks.

Sources of software
Application
Software

Proprietary Off-the-shelf

In - house Contract Customized Standard

developed package Package

In – house Contract
customized customization
Advantages of proprietary software

 You can get exactly what you need in terms of reports, features
etc.
 Being involved in development offers a further level in control
over results.
 There is more flexibility in making modifications that may be
required to counteract a new initiative by a competitor or to meet
new supplier or customer requirements. A merger with another
firm or an acquisition will also necessitate software changes to
meet new business needs.

Disadvantages of proprietary software

 It can take a long time and significant resources to develop

required features.
 In house system development staff may become hard pressed to
provide the required level of ongoing support and maintenance
because of pressure to get on to other new projects.
 There is more risk concerning the features and performance of
the software that has yet to be developed.

Advantages of off-the-shelf software

 The initial cost is lower since the software firm is able to spread
the development costs over a large number of customers.
  There is lower risk that the software will fail to meet the basic
business needs
– you can analyse existing features and performance of the
package
 Package is likely to be of high quality since many customer firms
have tested the software and helped identify many of its bugs.

Disadvantages of off-the-shelf software

 An organization may have to pay for features that are not

required and never used.
 The software may lack important features, thus requiring future
modifications or customisation. This can be very expensive
because users must adopt future releases of the software.
 Software may not match current work processes and data
standards.

Application software is further classified into general-purpose software

and applications.

General-purpose software

Examples include
 Word processing – Create, edit and print text documents. E.g. MS
Word, Word Perfect.
 Spreadsheets – Provide a wide range of built-in functions for
statistical, logical, financial, database, graphics, data and time
calculations. E.g. Lotus 1-2-3, Excel, Quattro Pro.
 Database management systems (DBMS) – Store, manipulate and
retrieve data. E.g. Access, FoxPro, dBase.
 Online Information Services – Obtain a broad range of information
from commercial services. E.g. America Online, CompuServe
 Communications- Ms Outlook for email
 Browsers e.g Internet Explorer, Eudora
  Graphics – Develop graphs, illustrations and drawings. E.g.
PaintShop, FreeHand, Corel
 Project Management – Plan, schedule, allocate and control people
and resources needed to complete a project according to
schedule. E.g. Project for Windows, Time Line.
 Financial Management – Provide income and expense tracking
and reporting to monitor and plan budgets. E.g. Quicken
 Desktop publishing -used to create high-quality printed output
including text and graphics; various styles of pages can be laid
out; art and text from other programs can also be integrated into
published pages. E.g. PageMaker, Publisher.
 Presentation packages like MS Powerpoint

Note: A software suite, such as Microsoft Office, offers a collection

of powerful programs including word processing, spreadsheet,
database, graphics and other programs. The programs in a software
suite are designed to be used together. In addition, the commands,
the icons and procedures are the same for all programs in the suite.

Programming Languages

Programming languages are collections of commands, statements and

words that are combined using a particular syntax, or rules, to write
both systems and application software. This results in meaningful
instructions to the CPU.
Generations of programming languages

Machine Language (1st Generation Languages)

A machine language consists of binary digit, that is, zeroes and ones.
Instructions and addresses are written in binary (0,1) code. Binary is the
only “language” a CPU can understand. The CPU directly interprets and
executes this language, therefore making it fast in execution of its
instructions. Machine language programs directly instructed the
computer hardware, so they were not portable. That is, a program
written for computer model A could not be run on computer model B
without being rewritten. All software in other languages must ultimately
be translated down to machine language form. The translation process
makes the other languages slower.

Advantage

 The only advantage is that program of machine language run

very fast because no translation program is required for the CPU.

Disadvantages

 It is very difficult to program in machine language. The

programmer has to know details of hardware to write program.
 The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a
program, which results in program errors.
 It is difficult to debug the program.
Assembly Language (2nd Generation languages)
Uses symbols and codes instead of binary digits to represent program
instructions. It is a symbolic language meaning that instructions and
addresses are written using alphanumeric labels, meaningful to the
programmer.

The resulting programs still directly instructed the computer hardware.

For example, an assembly language instruction might move a piece of
data stored at a particular location in RAM into a particular location on
the CPU. Therefore, like their first generation counterparts, second
generation programs were not easily portable.

Assembly languages were designed to run in a small amount of RAM.

Furthermore, they are low-level languages; that is the instructions
directly manipulate the hardware. Therefore, programs written in
assembly language execute efficiently and quickly. As a result, more
systems software is still written using assembly languages.
The language has a one to one mapping with machine instructions but
has macros added to it. A macro is a group of multiple machine
instructions, which are considered as one instruction in assembly
language. A macro performs a specific task, for example adding,
subtracting etc. A one to one mapping means that for every assembly
instruction there is a corresponding single or multiple instructions in
machine language.
An assembler is used to translate the assembly language statements
into machine language.

Advantages:

 The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to

understand and saves a lot of time and effort of the programmer.
 It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
 Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the
machine level language. Because this is one-to-one translator
between assembly language program and its corresponding
machine language program.

Disadvantages:

 One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is

machine dependent. A program written for one computer might
not run in other computers with different hardware configuration.
High-level languages (3rd generation languages)
Third generation languages are easier to learn and use than were
earlier generations. Thus programmers are more productive when using
third generation languages. For most applications, this increased
productivity compensates for the decrease in speed and efficiency of
the resulting programs. Furthermore, programs written in third
generation languages are portable; that is, a program written to run on
a particular type of computer can be run with little or no modification
on another type of computer. Portability is possible because third
generation languages are “high-level languages”; that is instructions do
not directly manipulate the computer hardware.

Third generation languages are sometimes referred to as “procedural”

languages since program instructions, must still the computer detailed
instructions of how to reach the desired result.
High-level languages incorporated greater use of symbolic code. Its
statements are more English –like, for example print, get, while. They
are easier to learn but the resulting program is slower in execution.
Examples include Basic, Cobol, C and Fortran. They have first to be
compiled (translated into corresponding machine language statements)
through the use of compilers.

Advantages of High Level Languages

 Higher-level languages have a major advantage over machine

and assembly languages that higher-level languages are easy to
learn and use.
 Are portable

Fourth Generation Languages (4GLs)

Fourth generation languages are even easier to use, and more English-
like, than are third generation languages. Fourth generation languages
are sometimes referred to as “non-procedural”, since programs tell the
computer what it needs to accomplish, but do not provide detailed
instructions as to how it should accomplish it. Since fourth generation
languages concentrate on the output, not procedural details, they are
more easily used by people who are not computer specialists, that is,
by end users.

Many of the first fourth generation languages were connected with

particular database management systems. These languages were
called query languages since they allow people to retrieve information
from databases. Structured query language, SQL, is a current fourth
generation language used to access many databases. There are also
some statistical fourth generation languages, such as SAS or SPSS.

Some fourth generation languages, such as Visual C++, Visual Basic, or

PowerBuilder are targeted to more knowledgeable users, since they are
more complex to use. Visual programming languages, such as visual
basic, use windows, icons, and pull down menus to make programming
easier and more intuitive.

Object Oriented Programming

First, second, third and fourth generation programming languages were

used to construct programs that contained procedures to perform
operations, such as draw or display, on data elements defined in a file.

Object oriented programs consist of objects, such as a time card, that

include descriptions of the data relevant to the object, as well as the
operations that can be done on that data. For example, included in the
time card object, would be descriptions of such data such as employee
name, hourly rate, start time, end time, and so on. The time card
object would also contain descriptions of such operations as calculate
total hours worked or calculate total pay.

Language translators

Although machine language is the only language the CPU understands,

it is rarely used anymore since it is so difficult to use. Every program
that is not written in machine language must be translated into
machine language before it can be executed. This is done by a
category of system software called language translation software.
These are programs that convert the code originally written by the
programmer, called source code, into its equivalent machine language
program, called object code.
There are two main types of language translators: interpreters and
compilers.

Interpreters

While a program is running, interpreters read, translate, and execute

one statement of the program at a time. The interpreter displays any
errors immediately on the monitor. Interpreters are very useful for
people learning how to program or debugging a program. However, the
line-by-line translation adds significant overhead to the program
execution time leading to slow execution.

Compilers

A compiler uses a language translation program that converts the

entire source program into object code, known as an object module, at
one time. The object module is stored and it is the object module that
executes when the program runs. The program does not have to be
compiled again until changes are made in the source code.
Software trends and issues

Open source software coming to the scene. This is software that is

freely available to anyone and can be easily modified. The use of open
source software has increased dramatically due to the World Wide Web.
Users can download the source code from web sites. Open source
software is often more reliable than commercial software because there
are many users collaborating to fix problems. The biggest problem with
open source software is the lack of formal technical support. However,
some companies that package open source software with various add-
ons and sell it with support are addressing this. An example of this is
Red Hat Linux operating system.
9. Data resources
Data
Data the raw material for information is defined as groups of non-
random symbols that represent quantities, actions, objects etc. In
information systems data items are formed from characters that may be
alphabetical, numeric, or special symbols. Data items are organized for
processing purposes into data structures, file structures and databases.
Data relevant to information processing and decision-making may also
be in the form of text, images or voice.

Information
Information is data that has been processed into a form that is
meaningful to the recipient and is of real or perceived value in current
or prospective actions or decisions. It is important to note that data for
one level of an information system may be information for another. For
example, data input to the management level is information output of a
lower level of the system such as operations level. Information
resources are reusable. When retrieved and used it does not lose value:
it may indeed gain value through the credibility added by use.

The value of information is described most meaningfully in the context

of a decision. If there were no current or future choices or decisions,
information would be unnecessary. The value of information in decision-
making is the value of change in decision behaviour caused by the
information less the cost of obtaining the information. Decisions
however are usually made without the “right” information. The reasons
are:

 The needed information is unavailable

 The effort to acquire the information is too great or too costly.
 There is no knowledge of the availability of the information.
 The information is not available in the form needed.

Much of the information that organizations or individuals prepare has

value other than in decision-making. The information may also be
prepared for motivation and background building.
Desirable qualities of information

 Availability – Information should be available and accessible to

those who need it.
 Comprehensible – Information should be understandable to those
who use it.
 Relevance – Information should be applicable to the situations
and performance of organizational functions. Relevant
information is important to the decision maker.
 Secure – Information should be secure from access by
unauthorized users.
 Usefulness – Information should be available in a form that is
usable.
 Timeliness - Information should be available when it is needed.
 Reliability – Reliable information can be depended on. In many
cases, reliability of information depends on the reliability of the
data collection method. In other instances, reliability depends on
the source of information.
 Accuracy – Information should be correct, precise and without
error. In some cases inaccurate information is generated because
inaccurate data is fed into the transformation process (this is
commonly called garbage in garbage out, GIGO).
 Consistency– Information should not be self-contradictory.
 Completeness – Complete information contains all the important
facts. For example an investment report that does not contain all
the costs is not complete.
 Economical – Information should always be relatively economical
to produce. Decision makers must always balance the value of
information and the cost of producing it.
 Flexibility – Flexible information can be used for a variety of
purposes.

Data Processing
Data processing may be defined as those activities, which are
concerned with the systematic recording, arranging, filing, processing
and dissemination of facts relating to the physical events occurring in
the business. Data processing can also be described as the activity of
manipulating the raw facts to generate a set or an assembly of
meaningful data, what is described as information. Data processing
activities include data collection, classification, sorting, adding,
merging, summarizing, storing, retrieval and dissemination.

The black box model is an extremely simple principle of a machine, that

is, irrespective of how a machine operates internally any machine takes
an input, operates on it and then produces an output.

Input Processing Output

In dealing with digital computers this data consists of: numerical data,
character data and special (control) characters.

Use of computers for data processing involves four stages:

 Data input – This is the process of data capture into the computer
system for processing. Input devices are used.
 Storage – This is an intermediary stage where input data is stored
within the computer system or on secondary storage awaiting
processing or output after processing. Program instructions to
operate on the data are also stored in the computer.
 Processing – The central processing unit of the computer
manipulates data using arithmetic and logical operations.
 Data output – The results of the processing function are output by
the computer using a variety of output devices.
Data processing activities
The basic processing activities include:
 Record – bring facts into a processing system in usable form
 Classify – data with similar characteristics are placed in the same
category, or group.
 Sort – arrangement of data items in a desired sequence
 Calculate – apply arithmetic functions to data
 Summarize – to condense data or to put it in a briefer form
 Compare – perform an evaluation in relation to some known
measures
 Communicate – the process of sharing information
 Store – to hold processed data for continuing or later use.
 Retrieve – to recover data previously stored

Information processing
This is the process of turning data into information by making it useful
to some person or process.
Computer files
A file is a collection of related data or information that is normally
maintained on a secondary storage device. The purpose of a file is to
keep data in a convenient location where they can be located and
retrieved as needed. The term computer file suggests organized
retention on the computer that facilitates rapid, convenient storage and
retrieval.

As defined by their functions, two general types of files are used in

computer information systems: master files and transaction files.

Master files
Master files contain information to be retained over a relatively long
time period. Information in master files is updated continuously to
represent the current status of the business.

An example is an accounts receivable file. This file is maintained by

companies that sell to customers on credit. Each account record will
contain such information as account number, customer name and
address, credit limit amount, the current balance owed, and fields
indicating the dates and amounts of purchases during the current
reporting period. This file is updated each time the customer makes a
purchase. When a new purchase is made, a new account balance is
computed and compared with the credit limit. If the new balance
exceeds the credit limit, an exception report may be issued and the
order may be held up pending management approval.
Transaction files
Transaction files contain records reflecting current business activities.
Records in transaction files are used to update master files.

To continue with the illustration, records containing data on customer

orders are entered into transaction files. These transaction files are
then processed to update the master files. This is known as posting
transaction data to master file. For each customer transaction record,
the corresponding master record is accessed and updated to reflect the
last transaction and the new balance. At this point, the master file is
said to be current.

Accessing Files
Files can be accessed
 Sequentially - start at first record and read one record after
another until end of file or desired record is found
o known as “sequential access”
o only possible access for serial storage devices
 Directly - read desired record directly
 o known as “random access” or “direct access”
File Organization
Files need to be properly arranged and organised to facilitate easy
access and retrieval of the information. Types of file organisation
(physical method of storage) include:
 Serial
 Sequential
 Indexed-Sequential
 Random
All file organisation types apply to direct access storage media (disk,
drum etc.)
A file on a serial storage media (e.g. tape) can only be organised
serially

Serial Organization
 Each record is placed in turn in the next available storage space
 A serial file must be accessed sequentially implying
o good use of space
o high access time
 Usually used for temporary files, e.g. transaction files, work files,
spool files
Note: The method of accessing the data on the file is different to
its organisation
o E.g. sequential access of a randomly organised file
o E.g. direct access of a sequential file

Sequential organization
 Records are organised in ascending sequence according to a certain
key
 Sequential files are accessed sequentially, one record after the next
 Suitable
o for master files in a batch processing environment
 o where a large percentage of records (high hit-rate) are to
be accessed
 Not suitable for online access requiring a fast response as file needs
to be accessed sequentially

Indexed Sequential
 Most commonly used methods of file organisation
 File is organised sequentially and contains an index
 Used on direct access devices
 Used in applications that require sequential processing of large
numbers of records but occasional direct access of individual records
 Increases processing overheads with maintenance of the indices

Random organization

 Records are stored in a specific location determined by a

randomising algorithm
o function (key) = record location (address)Records can be
accessed directly without regard to physical location
 Used to provide fast access to any individual record
e.g. airline reservations, online banking

Problems of traditional file based approach

Each function in an organisation develops specific applications in
isolation from other divisions, each application using their own data
files. This leads to the following problems:

 Data redundancy
o duplicate data in multiple data files
 Redundancy leads to inconsistencies
o in data representation e.g. refer to the same person as
client or customer
o values of data items across multiple filesData isolation —
multiple files and formats
  Program-data dependence
o tight relationship between data files and specific programs
used to maintain files
 Lack of flexibility
o Need to write a new program to carry out each new
taskLack of data sharing and availability
 Integrity problems
o Integrity constraints (e.g. account balance > 0) become
part of program code
o Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones
 Concurrent access by multiple users difficult
o Concurrent accessed needed for performance
o Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to
inconsistencies
o E.g. two people reading a balance and updating it at the
same time
 Security problems
Data files and databases
A data file is a structured collection of data (information). The data is
related in some manner. It is organized so that relationships within the
data are revealed (or revealable). A data file stores several (many)
pieces of information about many data objects. The simplest and most
efficient metaphor of how data is organized in a data file is as a table of
rows and columns, like a spreadsheet but without the linkages between
individual cells. A data file is made up of a number of records; each row
in a table is a separate record. Each record is made up of all the data
about a particular entity in the file.

A record includes many data items, each of which is a separate cell in

the table. Each column in the table is a field; it is a set of values for a
particular variable, and is made up of all the data items for that
variable. Examples include phone book, library catalogue, hospital
patient records, and species information.
A database is an organized collection of (one or more) related data
file(s). The way the database organizes data depends on the type of
database, called its data model, which, may be hierarchical, network
and relational models.

Benefits of the database approach

 Provide Data Independence

o separating the physical (how) & logical (what) aspects of the
system
 Physical data independence
o protects the application programs from changes in the physical
placement, of the files
o the ability to modify the physical schema without changing the
logical schema
 Logical data independence
o Modify logical schema without changing application programs
 Reduce redundancy
o reduce duplicate data items
o some redundancy may be necessary for business or technical
reasons - DBA must ensure updates are propagated (a change
to one is automatically applied to the other)
 Avoid inconsistency (by reducing redundancy)
o if it is necessary - propagate updates
 Maintain integrity - i.e. ensure the data is accurate by
o reducing redundancy
o implementing integrity rules, e.g. through foreign keys
 Share data
o among existing applications
 o used in new applications
 Allow implementation of security restrictions
o establish rules for different types of user for different types of
update to database
 Enforce standards for
o data representation - useful for migrating data between
systems
o data naming & documentation - aids data sharing &
understandability
 Balance conflicting requirements
o structure the corporate data in a way that is best for the
organisation

Database Management Systems (DBMS)

DBMSs are system software that aid in organizing, controlling and using
the data needed by application programs. A DBMS provides the facility
to create and maintain a well-organized database. It also provides
functions such as normalization to reduce data redundancy, decrease
access time and establish basic security measures over sensitive data.

DBMS can control user access at the following levels:

 User and the database
 Program and the database
 Transaction and the database
 Program and data field
 User and transaction
 User and data field

The following are some of the advantages of DBMS:

 Data independence for application systems

  Ease of support and flexibility in meeting changing data
requirements
 Transaction processing efficiency
 Reduction of data redundancy (similar data being held at more
than one point – utilizes more resources) – have one copy of the
data and avail it to all users and applications
 Maximizes data consistency – users have same view of data even
after an update
 Minimizes maintenance cost through data sharing
 Opportunity to enforce data/programming standards
 Opportunity to enforce data security
 Availability of stored data integrity checks
 Facilitates terminal users ad hoc access to data, especially
designed query languages/application generators

Most DBMS have internal security features that interface with the
operating system access control mechanism/package, unless it was
implemented in a raw device. A combination of the DBMS security
features and security package functions is often used to cover all
required security functions. This dual security approach however
introduces complexity and opportunity for security lapses.

DBMS architecture
Data elements required to define a database are called metadata.
There are three types of metadata: conceptual schema metadata,
external schema metadata and internal schema metadata. If any one of
these elements is missing from the data definition maintained within
the DBMS, the DBMS may not be adequate to meet users’ needs. A data
definition language (DDL) is a component used for creating the schema
representation necessary for interpreting and responding to the users’
requests.
Data dictionary and directory systems (DD/DS) have been developed to
define and store in source and object forms all data definitions for
external schemas, conceptual schemas, the internal schema and all
associated mappings. The data dictionary contains an index and
description of all the items stored in the database. The directory
describes the location of the data and access method. Some of the
benefits of using DD/DS include:

 Enhancing documentation
 Providing common validation criteria
 Facilitating programming by reducing the needs for data
definition
 Standardizing programming methods

Database structure
The common database models are:
 Hierarchical database model
 Network database model
 Relational database model

 Object–oriented model

Hierarchical database model

This model allows the data to be structured in a parent/child
relationship (each parent may have many children, but each child
would be restricted to having only one parent). Under this model, it is
difficult to express relationships when children need to relate to more
than one parent. When the data relationships are hierarchical, the
database is easy to implement, modify and search.

A hierarchical structure has only one root. Each parent can have
numerous children, but a child can have only one parent. Subordinate
segments are retrieved through the parent segment. Reverse pointers
are not allowed. Pointers can be set only for nodes on a lower level;
they cannot be set to a node on a predetermined access path.

Computer
Department

Manager Manager
(Development) (Operation)

Business Operator Operator

Analyst

Programmer Computer 21 Computer 01

Network Database Model

The model allows children to relate to more than one parent. A
disadvantage to the network model is that such structure can be
extremely complex and difficult to comprehend, modify or reconstruct
in case of failure. The network structure is effective in stable
environments where the complex interdependencies of the
requirements have been clearly defined.

The network structure is more flexible, yet more complex, than the
hierarchical structure. Data records are related through logical entities
called sets. Within a network, any data element can be connected to
any item. Because networks allow reverse pointers, an item can be an
owner and a member of the same set of data. Members are grouped
together to form records, and records are linked together to form a set.
A set can have only one owner record but several member records.

Comp
.
John Dept. Jane

Mary
Comp
. 101 Comp
. 201
Comp
Comp . 401
. 301

Relational Database Model

The model is independent from the physical implementation of the data
structure. The relational database organization has many advantages
over the hierarchical and network database models. They are:
 Easier for users to understand and implement in a physical
database system
 Easier to convert from other database structures
 Projection and joint operations (referencing groups of related data
elements not stored together) are easier to implement and
creation of new relations for applications is easier to do.
 Access control over sensitive data is easy to implement
 Faster in data search
 Easier to modify than hierarchical or network structures

Relational database technology separates data from the application and

uses a simplified data model. Based on set theory and relational
calculations, a relational database models information in a table
structure with columns and rows. Columns,
Staff called domains or
Department Manager
attributes, correspondManager
Department ID to fields.
ID Rows or tuples
Staff IDare equal to records in a
Department Name Manager Name Manager ID
Department Type file
conventional Department
structure. IDSurname use normalization rules
Relational
databases
Firstname
Initial in tables to satisfy users’
to minimize the amount of information needed
Date of birth
structured and unstructured queries to the Job Title
database. PC OD
Hard disk size
RAM
CPU
Applications
Staff ID
Manager ID
Database administrator
Coordinates the activities of the database system. Duties include:
 Schema definition
 Storage structure and access method definition
 Schema and physical organisation modification
 Granting user authority to access the database
 Specifying integrity constraints
 Acting as liaison with users
 Monitoring performance and responding to changes in requirements
 Security definitions

Database Security, Integrity and Control

Security is the protection of data from accidental or deliberate threats,
which might cause unauthorized modification, disclosure or destruction
of data and the protection of the information system from the
degradation or non-availability of service. Data integrity in the context
of security is when data are the same as in source documents and have
not been accidentally or intentionally altered, destroyed or disclosed.
Security in database systems is important because:

 Large volumes of data are concentrated into files that are

physically very small
 The processing capabilities of a computer are extensive, and
enormous quantities of data are processed without human
intervention.
 Easy to lose data in a database from equipment malfunction,
corrupt files, loss during copying of files and data files are
susceptible to theft, floods etc.
 Unauthorized people can gain access to data files and read
classified data on files
 Information on a computer file can be changed without leaving
any physical trace of change
 Database systems are critical in competitive advantage to an
organization

Some of the controls that can be put in place include:

1) Administrative controls – controls by non-computer based measures.
They include:
a. Personnel controls e.g. selection of personnel and division of
responsibilities
b. Secure positioning of equipment
c. Physical access controls
d. Building controls
e. Contingency plans
2) PC controls
a. Keyboard lock
b. Password
c. Locking disks
d. Training
e. Virus scanning
 f. Policies and procedures on software copying
3) Database controls – a number of controls have been embedded into
DBMS, these include:
a. Authorization – granting of privileges and ownership,
authentication
b. Provision of different views for different categories of users
c. Backup and recovery procedures
d. Checkpoints – the point of synchronization between database
and transaction log files. All buffers are force written to
storage.
e. Integrity checks e.g. relationships, lookup tables, validations
f. Encryption – coding of data by special algorithm that renders
them unreadable without decryption
g. Journaling – maintaining log files of all changes made
h. Database repair
4) Development controls – when a database is being developed, there
should be controls over the design, development and testing e.g.
a. Testing
b. Formal technical review
c. Control over changes
d. Controls over file conversion
5) Document standards – standards are required for documentation
such as:
a. Requirement specification
b. Program specification
c. Operations manual
d. User manual
6) Legal issues
a. Escrow agreements – legal contracts concerning software
b. Maintenance agreements
c. Copyrights
d. Licenses
e. Privacy
7) Other controls including
a. Hardware controls such as device interlocks which prevent
input or output of data from being interrupted or terminated,
once begun
b. Data communication controls e.g. error detection and
correction.
Database recovery is the process of restoring the database to a correct
state in the event of a failure.

Some of the techniques include:

1) Backups
2) Mirroring – two complete copies of the database are maintained
online on different stable storage devices.
3) Restart procedures – no transactions are accepted until the database
has been repaired
4) Undo/redo – undoing and redoing a transaction after failure.

A distributed database system exists where logically related data is

physically distributed between a number of separate processors linked
by a communication network.

A multidatabase system is a distributed system designed to integrate

data and provide access to a collection of pre-existing local databases
managed by heterogeneous database systems such as oracle.
10. Terminology

Multiprogramming
Multiprogramming is a rudimentary form of parallel processing in which
several programs are run at the same time on a uniprocessor. Since
there is only one processor, there can be no true simultaneous
execution of different programs. Instead, the operating system executes
part of one program, then part of another, and so on. To the user it
appears that all programs are executing at the same time.

Multiprocessing
Multiprocessing is the coordinated (simultaneous execution) processing
of programs by more than one computer processor. Multiprocessing is a
general term that can mean the dynamic assignment of a program to
one of two or more computers working in tandem or can involve
multiple computers working on the same program at the same time (in
parallel).

Multitasking
In a computer operating system, multitasking is allowing a user to
perform more than one computer task (such as the operation of an
application program) at a time. The operating system is able to keep
track of where you are in these tasks and go from one to the other
without losing information. Microsoft Windows 2000, IBM's OS/390, and
Linux are examples of operating systems that can do multitasking
(almost all of today's operating systems can). When you open your Web
browser and then open word at the same time, you are causing the
operating system to do multitasking.

Multithreading
It is easy to confuse multithreading with multitasking or
multiprogramming, which are somewhat different ideas.

Multithreading is the ability of a program or an operating system

process to manage its use by more than one user at a time and to even
manage multiple requests by the same user without having to have
multiple copies of the programming running in the computer
 LESSON FOUR

NETWORKS
Terminologies used in networks

Bookmark - a way of storing your favorite sites on the Internet. Browsers like Netscape
or Internet

Chat - real-time, synchronous, text-based communication via computer.

Cookie - Information (in this case URLs, Web addresses) created by a Web server and
stored on a user's computer.

Firewall - The name "firewall" derives from the term for a barrier that prevents fires from
spreading. A computer "firewall" is a barrier between your computer and the outside
world.
Flash - Animation software used to develop interactive graphics for Web sites as well as
desktop presentations and games (Windows and Mac) by the company Macromedia
Home page - Generally the first page retrieved when accessing a Web site
Internet - A global network of thousands of computer networks linked by data lines and
wireless systems.
Search Engine - specialized software, such as AltaVista and Yahoo, that lets WWW
browser users search for information on the Web by using keywords, phrases, and boolean
logic.
Telnet - The command to log on to another computer on the Internet.

URL - A universal resource locator (a computer address) that identifies the location and
type of resource on the Web. A URL generally starts with "http."

Virus - a computer program usually hidden in an existing program

WORM - A destructive computer program that replicates itself throughout your
computer's hard drive and and memory
Bluetooth is a wireless technology for exchanging data over short distances.
WI-FI- wireless internet frequency interphase- is a local area wireless technology that
allows an electronic device to exchange data or connect to the internet using 2.4 GHz
UHF and 5 GHz SHF radio waves
ISP- An Internet service provider (ISP) is an organization that provides services for
accessing, using, or participating in the Internet.
Phishing- is an e-mail fraud method in which the perpetrator sends out legitimate-looking
email in an attempt to gather personal and financial information from recipients.

What is a computer
Network?

A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with

one another over a shared network medium. A computer network is a
collection of two or more connected computers. When these computers are
joined in a network, people can share files and peripherals such as modems,
printers, tape backup drives, or CD-ROM drives. When networks at multiple
locations are connected using services available from phone companies,
people can send e-mail, share links to the global Internet, or conduct video
conferences in real time with other remote users. When a network becomes
open sourced it can be managed properly with online collaboration
software. As companies rely on applications like electronic mail and
database management for core business operations, computer networking
becomes increasingly more important.

Every
network
includes
:

 At least two computers Server or Client workstation.

 Networking Interface Card's (NIC)
 A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although
wireless communication between networked computers and
peripherals is also possible.
 Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows
NT or 2000, Novell NetWare, Unix

a
n
d

L
i
n
u
x
.

Types of
Networks:

LANs (Local Area

Networks)
A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with
one another over a shared network medium. LANs are networks usually
confined to a geographic area, such as a single building or a college campus.
LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds
of computers used by thousands of people. The development of standard
networking protocols and media has resulted in worldwide proliferation of
LANs throughout business and educational organizations.

WANs (Wide Area

Networks)

Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically

separate. This is accomplished by connecting the different LANs using
services such as dedicated leased phone lines, dial-up phone lines (both
synchronous and asynchronous), satellite links, and data packet carrier
services. Wide area networking can be as simple as a modem and remote
access server for employees to dial into, or it can be as complex as hundreds
of branch offices globally linked using special routing protocols and filters to
minimize the expense of sending data sent over vast distances.

MANs (Metropolitan
area Networks) The
refers to a network of
computers with in a City.

VPN (Virtual Private

Network)
VPN uses a technique known as tunneling to transfer data securely on
the Internet to a remote access server on your
workplace network. Using a VPN helps
you save money by using the public
Internet instead of making long–distance
phone calls to connect securely with your
private network. There are two ways to
create a VPN connection, by dialing an
Internet service provider (ISP), or
connecting directly to Internet.

Categories
of Network:

Network can be divided in to

two main categories:

 Peer-to-peer.
 Server – based.

In peer-to-peer networking there are no

dedicated servers or hierarchy among the
computers. All of the computers are
equal and therefore known as peers.
Normally each computer serves as
Client/Server and there is no one
assigned to be an administrator
responsible for the entire network.

Peer-to-peer networks are good choices

for needs of small organizations where
the users are allocated in the same
general area, security is not an issue and
 the organization and the network will
have limited growth within the
foreseeable
future.

Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a
computer network

What is a Topology?

The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and
other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is
the method used to pass information between workstations. Logical topology was
discussed in the Protocol chapter.

Main Types of Physical Topologies

The following sections discuss the physical topologies used in networks and other related
topics.

 Linear Bus
 Star
 Tree (Expanded Star)
 Considerations When Choosing a Topology
  Summary Chart

Star

A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals)
connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator (See fig. 2).

Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to
its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the
network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with
twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.

Fig. 2. Star topology

Advantages of a Star Topology

 Easy to install and wire.

 No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
 Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

 Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

  If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.
 More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.

Linear Bus

A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end (See
fig. 1). All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear
cable.

Fig. 1. Linear Bus topology

Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

 Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

 Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Tree or Expanded Star

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of
groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable (See fig.
3). Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to
configure a network to meet their needs.

Fig. 3. Tree topology

Advantages of a Tree Topology

 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

 Supported by several hardware and software venders.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

 Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Considerations When Choosing a Topology

 Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network;
you do not have to purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by
adding another concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is
most often used with star topologies.
 DATA PROCESSING

Most computer processing systems require some input from the user. The way this
processing is to be carried out is determined at the system design stage of the System Life
Cycle.

This is called the 'processing mode'. The ones you need to understand are

 Batch mode
 Interactive mode
 Real Time mode
 . BATCH PROCESSING

It is often not desirable to deal with a set of data inputs until a certain
number have occurred or a set time has passed. So they are stored
until the system comes online to process the data in one 'batch'.

For example

 A stock control programme may store records of every item sold in a shop that day.
Then, at the end of each day it calculates what needs to be ordered.
 An online competition stores all the entries until it is time to find the winner.
 Electricity, gas and telephone bills are usually calculated on a monthly basis.
 Producing monthly bank statements to send out to customers
 Payroll runs which may be weekly or monthly

After loading the data into the system, batch processing does not
usually require any further interaction on the part of the user. Therefore
the user interface is often code-based. The user enters the parameters
of the batch run then leaves it to carry on.

Batch processing data sets

The advantage of batch processing is that it can be done during less-

busy times on the computer or jobs can be queued up in order to fairly
share a computing resource such as a super-computer.

For example, a scientist may have data-logged a huge amount of data

on an experiment - perhaps he is working at the Large Hadron Collider
in Switzerland and has Gigabytes of data to process. He submits the
data to the super-computer as a batch run. Once complete an output
data set is available for further analysis and visualisation.
 Batch processing print outs

This is probably the most common form of batch processing. Namely, an

input data set results in a set of printed documents.

For example, a payroll run results in a set of pay slips to be issued.

ADVANTAGES

 A data center’s staff can schedule batch processing during times

when the computers are otherwise idle, such as overnight. The
computer operators can delay or prioritize different batches easily,
depending on circumstances. Batch jobs are standard computer
files containing commands, programs and data; once created,
some can be run repeatedly as needed, adding convenience for
the staff and helping keep processing costs low.

DISADVANTAGES

 All of a batch job’s input data must be ready before the computer
can run it; this means it must be carefully checked. Problems with
data, errors and program crashes that occur during batch jobs
bring the whole process to a halt; the inputs must be carefully
checked before the job can be run again. Even minor data errors,
such as typos in dates, can prevent a batch job from running.

TIME-SHARING

is the sharing of a computing resource among many users by means of multiprogramming

and multi-tasking

Time-sharing operating system features:

1. Multi-channel nature: That many online users can simultaneously use the same
computer;
2. Exclusivity: The end-users feel that they monopolize the computer;
3. Interactivity: Users and computers can be "conversations."
4. Timeliness: The user's request can be in a short time to respond.

DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING

in the distributed processing system mode, server systems called distributed systems that
are placed at locations such as business stores and branch offices are connected to the host
computer. The role of distributed systems includes distributed processing of host computer
jobs and management of distributed data.

Installing HA Monitor in distributed systems enables you to reduce downtime at the

distributed systems that is caused by server failures, thereby minimizing the amount of
time processing is suspended at the locations.

The following figure shows an example of the distributed processing system mode.

Figure 1-8 Example of distributed processing system mode

Computer System Security and Access Controls

Computer security covers a lot of territory: locking your computer room and your machine,
protecting your login accounts with passwords, using file protection to keep your data from
being destroyed, encrypting network communications lines, and using special shields to
keep electromagnetic emanations from leaking out of your computer. But when people talk
about computer security, they usually mean what in this chapter we call computer system
security.
What Makes a System Secure?

In the most basic sense, computer system security ensures that your computer does what
it's supposed to do–even if its users don't do what they're supposed to do. It protects the
information stored in it from being lost, changed either maliciously or accidentally, or read
or modified by those not authorized to access it.

How does computer system security provide protection? There are four primary methods:

1. System Access Controls.

Ensuring that unauthorized users don't get into the system, and by encouraging (and
sometimes forcing) authorized users to be security-conscious–for example, by
changing their passwords on a regular basis. The system also protects password
data and keeps track of who's doing what in the system, especially if what they're
doing is security-related (e.g., logging in, trying to open a file, using special
privileges).

The section "System Access: Logging Into Your System" introduces the basics of
system access controls. Chapter 6, Inside the Orange Book, describes the Orange
Book accountability requirements, which specify the system access controls defined
for different levels of secure systems. In particular, see the section entitled
"Accountability Requirements" in that chapter.

2. Data Access Controls.

Monitoring who can access what data, and for what purpose. Your system might
support discretionary access controls; with these, you determine whether other
people can read or change your data. Your system might also support mandatory
access controls; with these, the system determines access rules based on the security
levels of the people, the files, and the other objects in your system.

"Data Access: Protecting Your Data" introduces the basics of data access controls.
In Chapter 6, the section entitled "Security Policy Requirements" describes the
Orange Book security policy requirements, which specify the data access controls
defined for different levels of secure systems.
 3. System and Security Administration.
Performing the offline procedures that make or break a secure system–by clearly
delineating system administrator responsibilities, by training users appropriately,
and by monitoring users to make sure that security policies are observed. This
category also involves more global security management; for example, figuring out
what security threats face your system and what it will cost to protect against them.
4. System Design.
Taking advantage of basic hardware and software security characteristics; for
example, using a system architecture that's able to segment memory, thus isolating
privileged processes from nonprivileged processes.

Although a detailed discussion of secure system design is outside the province of

this book, the section "System Architecture" in Chapter 6 describes briefly the
major Orange Book design requirements for different levels of secure systems.

INTERNET AND EMAILS

What is the Internet?

The Internet links are computer networks all over the world so that users can share
resources and communicate with each other

Who Pays for the Internet?

There is no clear answer to this question because the Internet is not one
"thing", it's many things. No one central agency exists that charges
individual Internet users. Rather, individuals and institutions who use
the Internet pay a local or regional Internet service provider for their
share of services. And in turn, those smaller Internet service providers
might purchase services from an even larger network. So basically,
everyone who uses the Internet in some way pays for part of it.

Top
2-what makes the internet work?

The unique thing about the Internet is that it allows many different
computers to connect and talk to each other. This is possible because of
a set of standards, known as protocols, that govern the transmission of
data over the network: TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol). Most people who use the Internet aren't so interested in
details related to these protocols. They do, however, want to know what
they can do on the Internet and how to do it effectively.

What is a virus?

This is a type of program which has been put together with the
aim of causing problems to your computer. Either your hard disk
could be permanently damaged, or, at least some files will be
corrupted.

What can I do to prevent this?

Many computer systems have anti- virus programs already

included if not one should be bought and installed. One of the
most well-known manufacturers of these programs is Norton
which has programs such as MacAfee that does an excellent job
of tracking and destroying most viruses.

What should I do if the computer freezes?

If the mouse no longer functions, the keyboard appears to

locked or the screen simply turns black, you will need to reboot
(that means start up the computer again). This time, though, do
not press on the button on the tower, instead simultaneously
press Ctrl+Alt+Delete. You will be asked if you want to stop the
current task, say, Yes and the system will start up again and
 return to the desktop of Windows.

WEB BROWSER

Is the Web the same as the Internet?

No. The Web is a collection of files that contain hyperlinks

which allow you to move easily from one document to
another, whereas the Network is the route Web pages take to
arrive at your computer.

First let's examine the role of the Web browser.

What is it? This is a piece of software that lets you visit the
World Wide Web, a vast interconnected group of files stored
on and accessed by computers around the world. The key to
the Web is its interwoven connections: the hyperlinks you
work with to access specific files on your screen.

Hyperlink: this is an automatic connection - when you click on

specific text or a picture on the screen you are automatically
brought to another screen, another, and so on; you're working
through layers of information.

These Web pages can be very simple or very sophisticated

with text, graphics (pictures), sound, animation or even a small
application (program), or information from a data base.

How does it work?

The information brought to your screen is through a connection

to the Internet, usually in the form of a modem, telephone line
and Internet service provider (for those people who love
 acronyms an ISP).

Which browser to use?

There are two main browsers used at the moment: Microsoft

Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator. Like all computer
software (programs) these come in various versions as they
are constantly being updated. Some people might say they
have version 4 of Netscape, whereas version 5 is
now available. Microsoft IE has an estimated 75.6% of the market and
Netscape Navigator 22.9%.

What's the difference? Where can I get one?

There are a few visual differences but in terms of performance

they are approximately the same. Often Web browsers are
already installed on new computers together with other
software. To activate them you need to contact an Internet
Service Provider like Total.Net, Sympatico, Primus, America
Online, etc.
Yes, the online service America Online has its own; Lynx, Mosaic
and Opera are a few others.

Let's examine a typical tool bar found on a browser.

Menu Bar: By clicking on each one of these headings a complete list

of commands possible.

Tool Bar: Here are some of the most frequently used commands
shown in the form of buttons. Point and click to use.

Back: Click here to move back one page at a time.

Forward: Allows to move forward one page at a time.

Stop: Point and click to stop the loading of a page. (Sometimes it

takes long time to get to a site; you might want to stop the process).

Refresh: If you get a message that a Web page cannot be displayed,

or you want to make sure you have the latest version of the page,
click the Refresh button.

Home: To return to the page you saw when you first opened Internet
Explorer, click on Home.

Search: Click the Search button on the toolbar to gain access to a

number of search providers. Type a word or phrase in the Search box.
Type go, find, or ? followed by a word or phrase in the Address bar.
Internet Explorer starts a search using its predetermined search
provider. After you go to a Web page, you can search for specific text
on that page by clicking the Edit menu and then clicking Find (on this
page). * See more about searching.

Favorites: You may decide that there are certain web sites that you
want to refer to often so keep them in your favorites.

To add a page to your list of favorite pages: Go to the page

you want to add to your Favorites list.

On the Favorites menu, click Add to Favorites. Type a new

name for the page if you want to.
To open one of your favorite pages, click the Favorites menu,
and then click the page you want to open. As your list of
favorite pages grows, you can organize them into folders.

History:

To find a page you've seen in the last few days, on the toolbar,
click the History button. The History bar appears, containing
links for Web sites and pages visited in previous days and
weeks. In the History bar, click a week or day, click a Web site
folder to display individual pages, and then click the page icon
to display the Web page.

To sort or search the History bar, click the arrow next to the
View button at the top of the History bar.

You can hide the History bar by clicking the History button
again. You can change the number of days that pages are
saved in the History list. The more days you specify, the
more disk space is used on your computer to save that
information.

To specify how many pages are saved in the History list, on

the Tools menu in Internet Explorer, click Internet Options.
Click the General tab. In the History area, change the number
of days that the History list keeps track of your pages.

To empty the History folder, click Clear History. This will

temporarily free up disk space on your computer. For Help on
an item, click at the top of the dialog box, and then click the
item.

Mail: Click here to go directly to the Email option and view

 incoming mail, write and send and Email, etc.

Print: If you want to print a web page, click here, you will be
asked which format you want. Choose Text if you want just the
basic information and no : graphics, or Richtext to include
everything.

Electronic mail on the internet:

Electronic mail, or e-mail, is probably the most popular and widely used
Internet function. E-mail, email, or just mail, is a fast and efficient way to
communicate with friends or colleagues. You can communicate with one
person at a time or thousands; you can receive and send files and other
information. You can even subscribe to electronic journals and
newsletters. You can send an e-mail message to a person in the same
building or on the other side of the world.

Top

How does E-mail Work?

E-mail is an asynchronous form of communication, meaning that the person whom

you want to read your message doesn't have to be available at the precise
moment you send your message. This is a great convenience for both you and the
recipient.

On the other hand, the telephone, which is a synchronous communication

medium, requires that both you and your listener be on the line at the same time in
order for you to communicate (unless you leave a voice message). It will be
impossible to discuss all the details of the many e-mail packages available to
Internet users.
Fortunately, however, most of these programs share basic functionality which
allow you to:
*send and receive mail messages
*save your messages in a file
*print mail messages
*reply to mail messages
*attach a file to a mail message

SOME COMPUTER JARGON

CPU Central Processing Unit (often called the brain of the

 computer) is responsible for carrying out the
commands sent to it through the various inputting
peripherals (in simple English this means the CPU
takes the information from, say the keyboard, and
carries out the commands it is given).
The CPU comes in different sizes; the very old ones were the
80386, or 80486. More recently the word Pentium
(80586+) has been given to denote the size.

The speed it carries out these tasks is calculated in Megahertz

(Mhz). The higher the number the faster it goes!!
Just to let you know, one megahertz is the
equivalent of 1 million cycles per second. A typical
speed would be 200 Mhz in
very up-to-date computers.
Some examples of CPUs are: Intel, AMD, CYRIX
and Motorola.

OS The Operating System. The role of the

operating
system is to
manage and co-ordinate the various parts of the
computer. It is made up of several computer
programs rolled into one. In the early days this was
handled by DOS (disk operating system) but people
did not want to spend the time learning how to use
this so Microsoft came up with a system which
worked mostly with images (icons) and was,
therefore, much easier to learn. The name of the
system is Windows.

This comes in various versions. The early ones were Windows

3.0 and so on. Then in 1995, Windows 95 was
 launched, followed in 1998 by Windows 98.
Windows 2000 is already in the works.!!

Memory The computer's memory is the place where

programs, commands, documents and so on are
stored. There are two main types of memory in
your computer.

RAM (Random Access Memory). While the

computer is turned on the RAM gets things up and
running and temporarily stores information currently
in use. It is measured in Megabytes. A

typical size of RAM is 32 megabytes.

Once the computer is turned off, if the work being

done is not saved it will be lost.

The other type of memory is the Read Only

Memory. Here the programs that have been
installed on the computer are stored as well as the
work you have saved before turning off the
computer. This is called Read Only because it can
be read but not changed.
Hard
Drive
Sometimes called the "C" drive because this is the
letter it has been given. This is found in the tower
(separate box part) of the computer. Its capacity is
very large often calculated in
Gigabytes (about 1 billion bytes). This is where the RAM
registers information we save and the ROM stores programs.

"A" Drive This is an external drive where a disk can be

inserted into the tower. This allows people who
want to transport information to do so on a disk
rather than saving onto the hard drive. The disks
used measure 3 1/2 inches and have a capacity of
1.44
Megabytes. The capacity of this disks is
comparatively small so very large files do not
always fit onto them. In that case people ZIP or
condense files before saving files and unzip them
later for use.

CD ROM This is another external drive, but this one does

not use disks instead high density CDs are used
because they can hold much more information. Many
complex games are available on CDs
as well as programs.

MODEM Modulator/Demodulator device that allows your

Revision Aid
95

computer to communicate, through a telephone line

to another computer/server. When information is
sent from your computer it is in digital form
(computers can read this but the telephone line
cannot so it is converted to analog data to be sent
through a telephone line) converted by the modem
to analog for the telephone then another modem at
the other end converts the analog data back to
digital to be read by the receiving computer.

The speed of the modem is measured in Kbps -

kilobytes per second. The higher the number the
faster the information is transmitted.