Unit-1 Introduction to Computer Network: A computer network is a group of devices

connected with each other through a transmission medium such as wires, cables etc.
These devices can be computers, printers, scanners, Fax machines etc. The
purpose of having computer network is to send and receive data stored in other
devices over the network. These devices are often referred as nodes. There are five
basic components of a computer network: Message: It is the data or information
which needs to be transferred from one device to another device over a computer
network. Sender: Sender is the device that has the data and needs to send the data
to other device connected to the network. Receiver: A receiver is the device which is
expecting the data from other device on the network. Transmission media: In order to
transfer data from one device to another device we need a transmission media such
as wires, cables, radio waves etc. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that are
agreed by both sender and receiver, without a protocol two devices can be
connected to each other but they cannot communicate. In order to establish a
reliable communication or data sharing between two different devices we need set of
rules that are called protocol. For example, http and https are the two protocols used
by web browsers to get and post the data to internet; similarly SMTP protocol is used
by email services connected to the internet. How Does a Computer Network Work?
Basics building blocks of a Computer network are Nodes and Links. A Network Node
can be illustrated as Equipment for Data Communication like a Modem, Router, etc.,
or Equipment of a Data Terminal like connecting two computers or more. Link in
Computer Networks can be defined as wires or cables or free space of wireless
networks. The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as rules or
protocols which help in sending and receiving data via the links which allow
Computer networks to communicate. Each device has an IP Address that helps in
identifying a device. Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks:  Network: A
network is a collection of computers and devices that are connected together to
enable communication and data exchange.  Nodes: Nodes are devices that are
connected to a network. These can include computers, Servers, Printers, Routers,
Switches and other devices.  Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards
that govern how data is transmitted over a network. Examples of protocols include
TCP/IP, HTTP and FTP.  Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and
logical arrangement of nodes on a network. The common network topologies include
bus, star, ring, mesh and tree.  Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks
give permission to take Network Capacity and Functionality on lease from the
Provider. Service Provider Networks include Wireless Communications, Data
Carriers, etc.  IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is
assigned to every device on a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices
and enable communication between them.  DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS)
is a protocol that is used to translate human-readable domain names (such as
www.google.com) into IP addresses that computers can understand.  Firewall: A
firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control incoming and outgoing
network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect networks from unauthorized access and
other security threats. Features of a Computer Network: A computer network has
following features: Performance: Performance of a computer network is measured in
terms of response time. The response time of sending and receiving data from one
node (computer in a computer network are often referred as node) to another should
be minimal. Data Sharing: One of the reason, why we use a computer network is to
share the data between different systems connected with each other through a
transmission media. Backup: A computer network must have a central server that
keeps the backup of all the data that is to be shared over a network so that in case of
a failure it should be able to recover the data faster. Software and hardware
compatibility: A computer network must not limit all the computers in a computer
network to use same software and hardware; instead it should allow the better
compatibility between the different software and hardware configuration. Reliability:
There should not be any failure in the network or if it occurs the recovery from a
failure should be fast. Security: A computer network should be secure so that the
data transmitting over a network should be safe from unauthorized access. Also, the
sent data should be received as it is at the receiving node, which means there
should not be any loss of data during transmission. Scalability: A computer network
should be scalable which means it should always allow adding new computers (or
nodes) to the already existing computer network. For example, a company runs 100
computers over a computer network for their 100 employees, let’s say they hire
another 100 employees and want to add new 100 computers to the already existing
LAN then in that case the local area computer network should allow this. The sharing
of data can occur through the two feasible ways: 1. Physical cable media, such as
fiber-optical cable, twisted pair etc. 2. Wireless methods such as Wi-Fi, radio
communication and microwave transmission. An example of a network is the tern
LAPLINK, which allows you to copy files from one device to another device over a
specific parallel port to be considered a computer network. Another example
specified here is that we all may use it in our daily lives, i.e., the internet. Some
various types of networks are LAN, MAN, WAN etc. There are various types of
networks that can be used for different functions:  LAN: Local area networks are
mainly used to connect personal devices within a few kilometers of a limited area.
These networks are used in offices, companies and factories to exchange data and
Information.  MAN: Metropolitan area networks are used to connect the devices
over an entire city under the range of up to 50 km. These networks are used in the
telephone company network and cable TV network.  WAN: Wide Area Networks are
used in the wide geological range over a country and continent. These networks are
used in military services, mobile operators, railways and airlines reservations.  PAN:
Personal area networks appropriate to personal or separate workspace under the
range of 10 meters. These networks are mostly used to connect tablets,
smartphones and laptops.  CAN: Campus area networks are used to connect
limited geographic areas. CAN interconnect multiple local area networks (LAN)
within Colleges, Universities, Corporates buildings, etc. Application of computer
networks: 1. Resource Sharing: Resource sharing is an application of a computer
network. Resource sharing means you can share one Hardware and Software
among multiple users. Hardware includes printers, Disks, Fax Machines, etc.
Computing devices. And Software includes Atom, Oracle VM Virtual Box, Postman,
Android Studio, etc. 2. Information Sharing: Using a Computer network, we can
share Information over the network, and it provides Search capabilities such as
WWW. Over the network, single information can be shared among the many users
over the internet. 3. Communication: Communication includes email, calls, message
broadcast, electronic funds transfer system etc. 4. Entertainment Industry: In
Entertainment industry also uses computer networks widely. Some of the
Entertainment industries are Video on demand, Multiperson real-time simulation
games, movie/TV programs, etc. 5. Access to Remote Databases: Computer
networks allow us to access the Remote Database of the various applications by the
endusers. Some applications are Reservation for Hotels, Airplane Booking, Home
Banking, Automated Newspaper, Automated Library etc. 6. Home applications: There
are many common uses of the computer network are as home applications. For
example, you can consider user-to-user communication, access to remote
instruction, electronic commerce and entertainment. Another way is managing bank
accounts, transferring money to some other banks, paying bills electronically. A
computer network arranges a robust connection mechanism between users. 7.
Business applications: The result of business application here is resource sharing.
And the purpose of resource sharing is that without moving to the physical location of
the resource, all the data, plans and tools can be shared to any network user. Most
of the companies are doing business electronically with other companies and with
other clients worldwide with the help of a computer network. 8. Mobile users: The
rapidly growing sectors in computer applications are mobile devices like notebook
computers and PDAs (personal digital assistants). Here mobile users/device means
portable device. The computer network is widely used in new-age technology like
smartwatches, wearable devices, tablets, online transactions, purchasing or selling
products online, etc. 9. Social media: Social media is also a great example of a
computer network application. It helps people to share and receive any information
related to political, ethical and social issues. Uses of Computer Network: o It allows
you to share resources such as printers, scanners, etc. o You can share expensive
software and database among network users. o It facilitates communications from
one computer to another computer. o It allows the exchange of data and information
among users through a network. Computer Network Components: Computer
network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software.
Some important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and
modem. Depending on the type of network that we need to install, some network
components can also be removed. For example, the wireless network does not
require a cable. Following are the major components required to install a network:
NIC: o NIC stands for network interface card. o NIC is a hardware component used
to connect a computer with another computer onto a network o It can support a
transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s. o The MAC address or physical address is
encoded on the network card chip which is assigned by the IEEE to identify a
network c (Programmable read-only memory). There are two types of NIC: 1. Wired
NIC 2. Wireless NIC Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard.
Cables and connectors are used with wired NIC to transfer data. Wireless NIC: The
wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless
network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC. Hub: A Hub is a
hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices
computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to
the Hub through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the
devices will check whether the request belongs to them or not. If not, the req The
process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of
communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more
advanced computer network components such as Switches, Routers. Switch: A
switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A
Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated
table that decides where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message
to the co physical address present in the incoming message. A Switch does not
broadcast the message to the entire network like the Hub. It determines the device to
whom the message is to be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that swi connection
between the source and destination. It increases the speed of the network. The MAC
address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned
by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the
PROM only memory). The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and
connectors are used with The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the
connection over the wireless network. For example, laptop computer contains the
wireless NIC. A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among
multiple devices computer requests for some information from a network, it first
sends the request to the Hub through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the
entire network. All the devices will check whether the request belongs to them or not.
If not, the request will be dropped. The process used by the Hub consumes more
bandwidth and limits the amount of communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is
obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced computer network components such
as Switches, Routers. tch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a
computer network. A Switch contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch
contains the updated table that decides where the data is transmitted or not. Switch
delivers the message to the correct destination based on the physical address
present in the incoming message. A Switch does not broadcast the message to the
entire network like the Hub. It determines the device to whom the message is to be
transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct connection between
the source and destination. It increases the speed of the network. The MAC address
or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned ard
uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM The Wired NIC is present inside
the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used with The wireless NIC contains
the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless A Hub is a hardware device
that divides the network connection among multiple devices. When computer
requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to the Hub
through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices
will check whether the The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and
limits the amount of communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is
replaced by more advanced computer network tch is a hardware device that
connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch contains more advanced
features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides where rrect
destination based on the A Switch does not broadcast the message to the entire
network like the Hub. It determines the device tch provides a direct connection
between the source and destination. It increases the speed of the network. Router: o
A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet
connection. It is used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to
another network. o A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference
model. o A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the
routing table. o It determines the best path from the available paths for the
transmission of the packet. Advantages of Router: o Security: The information which
is transmitted to the network will traverse the entire cable, but the only specified
device which has been addressed can read the data. o Reliability: If the server has
stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no other networks are affected that
are served by the router. o Performance: Router enhances the overall performance
of the network. Suppose there are 24 workstations in a network generates a same
amount of traffic. This increases the traffic load on the network. Router splits the
single network into two networks of 12 workstations each, reduces the traffic load by
half. o Network range Modem: o A modem is a hardware device that allows the
computer to connect to the internet over the existing telephone line. o A modem is
not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the PCI slot found
on the motherboard. o It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital
data into an analog signal over the telephone lines. Based on the differences in
speed and transmission rate, a modem can be classified in the following categories:
o Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem o Cellular Modem o Cable modem Cables
and Connectors: Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal. There
are three types of cables used in transmission: o Twisted pair cable o Coaxial cable
o Fiber-optic cable Topology: What is Network Topology? Topology defines the
structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected other. There
are two types of topology: physical and logical topology. Types of Network Topology:
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.
There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology and
Hybrid Topology. 1) Bus Topology: o The bus topology is designed in such a way that
all the stations are connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable. o
Each node is either connected backbone cable. o When a node wants to send a
message over the network, it puts a message over the network. All the stations
available in the network will receive the message whether it has bee addressed or
not. o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 ( o The configuration of a bus
topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies. Topology defines the
structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected other. There
are two types of topology: physical and logical topology. Physical topology is the
geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six types of
network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star
Topology, Mesh and Hybrid Topology. The bus topology is designed in such a way
that all the stations are connected through a single cable known as a backbone
cable. Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a
message over the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has bee The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (Ethernet) and
802.4 standard networks. The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as
compared to other topologies. Topology defines the structure of the network of how
all the components are interconnected to each Physical topology is the geometric
representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six types of y, Star Topology,
Mesh The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected
through a single to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly connected to the
When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it
has been ) and 802.4 standard networks. The configuration of a bus topology is quite
simpler as compared to other topologies. o The backbone cable is considered as a
"single lane" through which the message is broadcast to all the stations. o The most
common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access). CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that
data integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two
alternative ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send the
messages simultaneously. o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access
method used to detect the collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will
stop transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the collision". o
CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the
collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the
sender waits until the media becomes idle. This technique effectively reduces the
possibility of the collision. It does not work on "recovery after the collision".
Advantages of Bus topology: o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly
connected to the cable without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of
installation is low. o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly
used in bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps. o Familiar technology: Bus
topology is a familiar technology as the installation and troubleshooting techniques
are well known and hardware components are easily available. o Limited failure: A
failure in one node will not have any effect on other nodes. Disadvantages of Bus
topology: o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a lot
of cabling. o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes. o Signal interference: If two nodes send the
messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the
network. o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to communication issues.
Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal. 2) Ring Topology: o Ring topology is
like a bus topology, but with connected ends. o The node that receives the message
from the previous computer will node. o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is
unidirectional. o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless
loop. o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and
having no termination point. o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise
direction. o The most common access method of the ring topology is o Token
passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to
another node. o Token: It is a fram Working of Token passing: o A token move
around the the destination. o The sender modifies the token by putting the address
along with the data. o The data is passed from one device to another device until the
destination address matches. Once the token received by the destination device,
then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender. o In a ring topology, a token is used
as a carrier. Advantages of Ring topology: o Network Management: the network
down. o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network
operation and monitoring are available. Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with
connected ends. The node that receives the message from the previous computer
will retransmit to the next The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional. The
data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop. It has no
terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction. The most
common access method of the ring topology is token passing. It is a network access
method in which token is passed from one node It is a frame that circulates around
the network. around the network and it is passed from computer to computer until it
reaches The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data. is
passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches.
Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the
acknowledgment to the In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier. Network
Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing
Many hardware and software tools for network operation and retransmit to the next It
has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node
and it is passed from computer to computer until it reaches The sender modifies the
token by putting the address along with the data. is passed from one device to
another device until the destination address matches. Once the token received by
the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the Faulty devices can
be removed from the network without bringing Many hardware and software tools for
network operation and o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive is very low. o
Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not
dependent on the single host computer. Disadvantages of Ring topology: o Difficult
troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
communication for all the nodes. o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to
the failure of the overall network. o Reconfiguration difficult: network. o Delay:
Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new
devices increases the communication delay. 3) Star Topology: o Star topology is an
arrangement of t central hub, switch or a central computer. o The central computer is
known as a known as clients. o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connec o
Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a o Star topology is the
most popular topology in network implementation. Advantages of Star topology: o
Efficient troubleshooting: to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has to
inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to
the centralized network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the single
station to troubleshoot the problem. Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily
available. Therefore, the installation cost It is a more reliable network because the
communication system is not dependent on Disadvantages of Ring topology: Difficult
troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults.
If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the
nodes. The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network. icult:
Adding new devices to the network would slow down the Communication delay is
directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new devices increases the
communication delay. Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every
node is connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer. The central
computer is known as a server and the peripheral devices attached to the server are
45 cables are used to connect the computers. Hubs or Switches are mainly used as
connection devices in a physical star topology Star topology is the most popular
topology in network implementation. Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is
quite efficient in a star topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the
manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are
connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network o the single station to
troubleshoot the problem. and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost It is a
more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on s
specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the
cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes. The breakdown in
one station leads to the failure of the overall network. Adding new devices to the
network would slow down the Communication delay is directly proportional to the
number of nodes. Adding new he network in which every node is connected to the
and the peripheral devices attached to the server are physical star topology. efficient
in a star topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has
to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are connected to
the centralized network. Therefore, the network o Network control: Complex network
control features can be easily implemented in the star topology. Any changes made
in the star topology are automatically accommodated. o Limited failure: As each
station is co failure in one cable will not affect the entire network. o Familiar
technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost o Easily
expandable: It is easily expandable as new the hub. o Cost effective: Star topology
networks are cost o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps.
Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology o A Central point of failure: nodes will not be able to
communicate with each other. o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult
when a required. 4) Tree topology: o Tree topology combines the characteristics of
bus topology and star topology. o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all
the computers are connected with each other in hierarchical fashion. o The top-most
node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the
descendants of the root node. o There is only one path exists between two nodes for
the data transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy. Advantages of Tree
topology: o Support for broadband transmission: transmission, i.e., signals are sent
over long distances without being attenuated. Complex network control features can
be easily implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology
are automatically accommodated. As each station is connected to the central hub
with its own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost It is easily expandable as
new stations can be added to the open ports on Star topology networks are cost-
effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable. It supports a bandwidth of approx
100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of tar topology networks. Disadvantages of Star
topology: A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all
the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other. Sometimes
cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is Tree topology
combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology. A tree topology is a
type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each other most node
in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are the descendants of
the root node. There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is
mainly used to provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long
distances without being attenuated. Complex network control features can be easily
implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are
automatically accommodated. nnected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-effective. stations
can be added to the open ports on effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable. It
supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet 100BaseT is one of If the central
hub or switch goes down, then all the connected significant amount of routing is Tree
topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology. A tree
topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with each
other most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are
the There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus,
it forms a Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband transmission, i.e.,
signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated. o Easily expandable:
We can add the new device to the existing network. say that tree topology is easily
expandable. o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into
segments known as star networks which can be easily managed and maintained. o
Error detection: Error detection and error cor o Limited failure: The breakdown in one
station does not affect the entire network. o Point-to-point wiring: It has point
Disadvantages of Tree topology o Difficult troubleshooting: troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly. o Failure:
A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will
damage the overall network. o Reconfiguration difficult: 5) Mesh topology: o Mesh
technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected
with each other through various redundant connections. o There are multiple paths
from one computer to another computer. o It does not contain the switch, hub or any
central computer which acts as a central point of communication. o The Internet is an
example of the mesh topology. o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN
implementations where communication failures are a critical concern. o Mesh
topology is mainly used for wireless networks. o Mesh topology can be formed by
using the formula: Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network. We
can add the new device to the existing network. say that tree topology is easily
expandable. In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as
star networks which can be easily managed and maintained. Error detection and
error correction are very easy in a tree topology. The breakdown in one station does
not affect the entire network. It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology: ng: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes
difficult to troubleshoot the problem. Devices required for broadband transmission
are very costly. A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main
bus cable will damage the overall network. Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices
are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure. Mesh technology is an
arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected various
redundant connections. There are multiple paths from one computer to another
computer. It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as
a central point of The Internet is an example of the mesh topology. topology is mainly
used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a Mesh topology is
mainly used for wireless networks. Mesh topology can be formed by using the
formula: Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2; Where n is the number of nodes that
represents the network. We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments
known as rection are very easy in a tree topology. The breakdown in one station
does not affect the entire network. point wiring for individual segments. If any fault
occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to A tree topology mainly relies on main
bus cable and failure in main bus cable will If new devices are added, then it
becomes difficult to reconfigure. Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network
in which computers are interconnected It does not contain the switch, hub or any
central computer which acts as a central point of topology is mainly used for WAN
implementations where communication failures are a Mesh topology can be formed
by using the formula: Mesh topology is divided into two categories: o Fully connected
mesh topology o Partially connected mesh topology o Full Mesh Topology: In a full
mesh topology, each computer computers available in the network. o Partial Mesh
Topology: connected to those computers with which they communicate frequently.
Advantages of Mesh topology: Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very
reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the communication between
connected computers. Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the
nodes. Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrup devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number
of connected devices such as a router and more transmission media than other
topologies. o Management: Mesh topology networks are very la manage. If the
network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes
undetected. o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that
reduces the efficiency of the network. 6) Hybrid Topology: Mesh topology is divided
into two categories: Fully connected mesh topology Partially connected mesh
topology In a full mesh topology, each computer is connected to all the computers
available in the network. Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all
but certain computers are connected to those computers with which they
communicate frequently. e mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected computers.
Communication is very fast between the nodes. Adding new devices would not
disrupt the communication between other Disadvantages of Mesh topology: A mesh
topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more
transmission media than other topologies. Mesh topology networks are very large
and very difficult to maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully,
then the communication link failure goes In this topology, redundant connections are
high that reduces the efficiency of the is connected to all the In a partial mesh
topology, not all but certain computers are e mesh topology networks are very
reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the t the communication between
other A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a
router and rge and very difficult to maintain and manage. If the network is not
monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes In this topology,
redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the o The combination
of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology. o A Hybrid topology is a
connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data. o When two or
more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid topology and if
similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology.
For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus
topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result
in Hybrid topology. Advantages of Hybrid Topology: o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any
part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the network. o
Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without
affecting the functionality of the existing network. o Flexible: This topology is very
flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the organization. o
Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a way that
the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology: o Complex design: The major drawback of the
Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the
architecture of the Hybrid network. o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid
topology are very expensive as these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in
other topologies. o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a
hybrid network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc. Types of Computer
Networks: 1. Local Area Network (LAN) 2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) 3. Wide
Area Network (WAN) Local Area Network (LAN): As the name suggests, the local
area network is a computer network that operates in a small area, i.e., it connects
computers in a small geographical area like within an office, company, school or any
other organization. So, it exists within a specific area, e.g. home network, office
network, school network, etc. A local area network may be a wired or wireless
network or a combination of both. The devices in a LAN are generally connected
using an Ethernet cable, which offers an interface to connect multiple devices like
router, switches, and computers. For example, using a single router, few Ethernet
cables, and computers, you can create a LAN at your home, office, etc. In this
network, one computer may act as a server and other computers, which are part of
the network, may serve as clients. Features of LAN: o The network size is small,
which consists of only a few kilometres. o The data transmission rate is high, ranging
from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps. o LAN is included in bus, ring, mesh and star
topologies. o Some network devices connected to the LAN will be limited. o If more
devices are added than prescribed network may fail. Benefits of LAN: o It offers a
higher operating speed than WAN and MAN. o It is less expensive and easy to install
and maintain. o It perfectly fulfills the requirement of a specific organization, such as
an office, school, etc. o It can be wired or wireless or a combination of both. o It is
more secure than other networks as it is a small set up that can be easily taken care
of. Primary Functions of LAN: o Sharing of files: It allows you to share or transfer
files from one computer to another computer within the LAN. For example, in a bank,
it can be used to send a file with the details of transactions of a customer from the
server to clients. o Sharing of printers: It also allows shared access to a printer, file
servers, etc. For example, ten computers that are connected through LAN can use a
single printer, file server, fax machine, etc. o Sharing of Computational capabilities: It
allows the clients to access to the computational power of a server, e.g., an
application server as some applications which run on clients in a LAN may require
higher computational capabilities. o Mail and message related services: It allows
sending and receiving mails between computers of a LAN. You are required to have
a mail server for this. o Database services: It also allows storing and retrieving data
with the help of a database server. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MAN is a high-
speed network that spreads over a large geographical area such as a metro city or
town. It is set up by connecting lines. It can be operated by a private company local
telephone company. MAN is ideal for the people of a relatively large area who wa
provides fast communication via high optics and microwaves. The commonly used
protocols for MAN are X.25, Frame Relay, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM),
xDSL (Di Digital Network), ADSL (Asymme MAN is larger than the LAN but smaller
than a WAN. Its network ranges from 5 to 50 km. Furthermore, it also provides
uplinks for connecting LANs to WANs and the internet. An organization can use a
MAN to connect all of its LANs located at its different offices across the city.
Examples of MAN: o Cable TV Network o Telephone service provides that provide
high o IEEE 802.16 or WiMAX o Connected fire stations in a city o Connected
branches of a school in a city Features of MAN: o The size of the MAN is in the
range of 5km to 50km. o The MAN ranges from the campus to the entire city.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): speed network that spreads over a large
geographical area such as a metro city or the local area networks using routers and
local telephone exchange e operated by a private company or it may be a service
provided by a company such as a MAN is ideal for the people of a relatively large
area who want to share data or information. It provides fast communication via high-
speed carriers or transmission media such as copper, fiber and microwaves. The
commonly used protocols for MAN are X.25, Frame Relay, Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM), xDSL (Digital Subscriber Line), ISDN (Integrated Services Digital
Network), ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line) and more. MAN is larger
than the LAN but smaller than a WAN. Its network ranges from 5 to 50 km. es uplinks
for connecting LANs to WANs and the internet. An organization can use a MAN to
connect all of its LANs located at its different offices across the city. Telephone
service provides that provide high-speed DSL lines Connected fire stations in a city
Connected branches of a school in a city The size of the MAN is in the range of 5km
to 50km. The MAN ranges from the campus to the entire city. speed network that
spreads over a large geographical area such as a metro city or the local area
networks using routers and local telephone exchange or it may be a service provided
by a company such as a nt to share data or information. It speed carriers or
transmission media such as copper, fiber and microwaves. The commonly used
protocols for MAN are X.25, Frame Relay, gital Subscriber Line), ISDN (Integrated
Services The area covered by MAN is larger than the LAN but smaller than a WAN.
Its network ranges from 5 to 50 km. es uplinks for connecting LANs to WANs and the
internet. An organization can use a MAN to connect all of its LANs located at its
different offices across the city. o The MAN is maintained and managed by o Users
can achieve the sharing of regional resources by using MAN. o The data
transmission rates can be medium to high Advantages of MAN: o Less Expensive: It
is less expensive to set up a MAN and to connect it to o High Speed: The speed of
data transfer is more than WAN. o Local Emails: It can send local emails fast. o
Access to the Internet: users can have access to high o Easy to set up: You can
easily set up a MAN by connecting multiple LANs. o High Security: It is more secure
than WAN. Wide Area Network (WAN): WAN extends over a large geographical
area. It is not confined and is mainly set up by telephone lines, fiber optic, or satellite
links. It is mostly used by big organizations like banks and multinational companies
to communicate with their branches and customers across the world. Although it is
structurally terms of its range, e.g., MAN covers up to 50 Kms, whereas WAM covers
distances larger than 50 Km, e.g., 1000km or more. A WAN works by using TCP/IP
protocol in combination with networking devices such as switche routers, firewalls,
and modems. It does not connect individual computers; rather, they are designed to
link small networks like LANs and MANs to create a large network. The internet is
considered the largest WAN in the world as it connects various LANs The MAN is
maintained and managed by either the user group or the Network provider. Users
can achieve the sharing of regional resources by using MAN. The data transmission
rates can be medium to high It is less expensive to set up a MAN and to connect it to
The speed of data transfer is more than WAN. It can send local emails fast. Access
to the Internet: It allows you to share your internet connection, and thus multiple
users can have access to high-speed internet. You can easily set up a MAN by
connecting multiple LANs. It is more secure than WAN. WAN extends over a large
geographical area. It is not confined within an office, school, city and is mainly set up
by telephone lines, fiber optic, or satellite links. It is mostly used by big organizations
like banks and multinational companies to communicate with their branches and
customers across the world. Although it is structurally similar to MAN, it is different
from MAN in terms of its range, e.g., MAN covers up to 50 Kms, whereas WAM
covers distances larger than 50 A WAN works by using TCP/IP protocol in
combination with networking devices such as switche routers, firewalls, and
modems. It does not connect individual computers; rather, they are designed to link
small networks like LANs and MANs to create a large network. The internet is
considered the largest WAN in the world as it connects various LANs and MANs
through ISPs. either the user group or the Network provider. It is less expensive to
set up a MAN and to connect it to a WAN. It allows you to share your internet
connection, and thus multiple You can easily set up a MAN by connecting multiple
LANs. within an office, school, city or town and is mainly set up by telephone lines,
fiber optic, or satellite links. It is mostly used by big organizations like banks and
multinational companies to communicate with their branches and similar to MAN, it is
different from MAN in terms of its range, e.g., MAN covers up to 50 Kms, whereas
WAM covers distances larger than 50 A WAN works by using TCP/IP protocol in
combination with networking devices such as switches, routers, firewalls, and
modems. It does not connect individual computers; rather, they are designed to link
small networks like LANs and MANs to create a large network. The internet is
considered the and MANs through ISPs. The computers are connected to the wide
area network through public networks, such as telephone systems, leased lines or
satellites. The users of a WAN do not own the network as it is a large setup
connecting the remote computer systems. However, they are required to subscribe
to a service provided by a telecommunication provider to use this network. Features
of WAN: o Has a much larger capacity. o We can share the regional resources by
using WAN. o They have more bit-rate errors. o The transmission delay is, and
hence they need more communication speed. Advantages of a WAN: o Large
Network Range: It spans a large geographical area of 2000 km or more, e.g., from
one country to another countries. o Centralized data: It allows your different office
branches to use your head office server for retrieving and sharing data. Thus, you
don’t need to buy email servers, files server and back up servers, etc. o Get updated
files and data: It provides an ideal platform for companies who need a live server for
their employees to exchange updated files within seconds. o High bandwidth: It
offers high bandwidth than a normal broadband connection. Thus, it can increase the
productivity of your company by offering uninterrupted data transfer and
communication. o Workload Distribution: It helps distribute your workload to other
locations. You can hire employees in different countries and assign them to work
from your office. Examples of WAN: 1. Internet 2. US defense department 3. Stock
exchanges network 4. Railway reservation system 5. Big Banks' cash dispensers'
network 6. Satellite systems NETWORK STRUCTURE: Network structure refers to a
general system, network, or pattern of relationships that can be derived from the
observable behavior of animate and inanimate actors or objects in a given
population. Structure is usually understood as the arrangement of parts or elements
of some complexity tied together by relations. The study of these relations is the
subject of network theory. A network consists of nodes and links that form dyads,
triads, groups or a system of interconnected animate (actors) and inanimate objects,
based on the specific types of relationships between them. In a dyad, ties come
together, through the type of relation, to create a system of interdependence. Triads
are fundamental network structures. Network Structure Measures Network structure
can be studied and measured with social and dynamic network analysis, which
allows the study of network topology, network behavior, and evolution, as well as an
understanding of why networks are structured the way they are. This analysis
reveals the privileges of some nodes and the advantages of some types of networks
over others. The basic measures at the whole network level are density and
centralization. Density measures the actual number of links between nodes in
relation to all links that exist. This allows the assessment of the degree of networking
of the studied system or population. Centralization refers to the overall integration or
coherence of the network. It determines the relative dominance of a single node over
others in the network and then the entire network is characterized by a centralized
structure in which there are many links around one node. Conversely, a network
structure takes a decentralized form. Both the dense and centralized network
structures have inevitable positive and negative consequences. Network structures
and positions in the network; create both opportunities and limitations depending on
the functional value of the relationships studied. The network’s overall efficiency can
be assessed through the prism of possible fragmentation and the redundancy of
nodes or relations. Computer Network Architecture: Computer Network Architecture
is defined as the physical and logical design of the software, hardware, protocols,
and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers are
organized and how tasks are allocated to the computer. The two types of network
architectur 1. Peer-To-Peer network 2. Client/Server network Peer-To-Peer network:
o Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together
with equal privilege and responsibilities for processing the data. o Peer-To-Peer
network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers. o Peer-To-
Peer network has no dedicated server. o Special permissions are assigned to each
computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if the computer
with the resource is down. Advantages of Peer-To-Peer Network: o It is less costly as
it does not contain any dedicated server. o If one computer stops working but, other
computers will not stop working. o It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer
manages itself. Disadvantages of Peer-To-Peer Network: o In the case of Peer-To-
Peer network, it does not cannot back up the data as the data is different in different
locations. o It has a security issue as the device is managed itself. Client/Server
Network: o Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users
called clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central
computer known as Server. The two types of network architectures are used: Peer
network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal
privilege and responsibilities for processing the data. useful for small environments,
usually up to 10 computers. Peer network has no dedicated server. Special
permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can
lead to a problem if the computer with the resource is down. Peer Network: It is less
costly as it does not contain any dedicated server. If one computer stops working
but, other computers will not stop working. It is easy to set up and maintain as each
computer manages itself. Peer Network: Peer network, it does not contain the
centralized system cannot back up the data as the data is different in different
locations. It has a security issue as the device is managed itself. Client/Server
network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the
resources such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server. Peer
network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal useful
for small environments, usually up to 10 computers. Special permissions are
assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead If one
computer stops working but, other computers will not stop working. contain the
centralized system. Therefore, it Client/Server network is a network model designed
for the end users called clients, to access the resources such as songs, video, etc.
from a central computer known as Server. o The central controller is known as a
called clients. o A server performs all the major operations such as security and
network management. o A server is responsible for managing all the resources such
as files, directories, printer, etc. o All the clients communicate wi send some data to
client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The server
sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.
Advantages of Client/Server network: o A Client/Server network contains the
centralized system. Therefore we can back up the data easily. o A Client/Server
network has a dedicated server that improves the overall performance of the whole
system. o Security is better in Client/Server network as a single server administers
the shared resources. o It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages of Client/Server network: o Client/Server network is expensive as it
requires the server with large memory. o A server has a Network Operating System
(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high. o It
requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources. OSI Model:
 OSI stands for Open System Interconnection information from a software the
software application in another computer.  OSI consists of seven layers, and each
layer performs a particular network function.  OSI model was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now
considered as an architectural model for communications. The central controller is
known as a server while all other computers in the network are A server performs all
the major operations such as security and network management. A server is
responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc. All
the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1
wants to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for
the permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its
communication with the client 2. Advantages of Client/Server network: A
Client/Server network contains the centralized system. Therefore we can back up the
data A Client/Server network has a dedicated server that improves the overall
performance of the tter in Client/Server network as a single server administers the
shared resources. It also increases the speed of the sharing resources.
Disadvantages of Client/Server network: Client/Server network is expensive as it
requires the server with large memory. A server has a Network Operating System
(NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but the cost of NOS is very high. It
requires a dedicated network administrator to manage all the resources. Open
System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how software application
in one computer moves through a physical medium to on in another computer. OSI
consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function. OSI
model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for computers in the
network are A server performs all the major operations such as security and network
management. A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files,
directories, printer, etc. th each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants
to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the
permission. The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its
communication with the client 2. A Client/Server network contains the centralized
system. Therefore we can back up the data A Client/Server network has a dedicated
server that improves the overall performance of the tter in Client/Server network as a
single server administers the shared resources. Client/Server network is expensive
as it requires the server with large memory. A server has a Network Operating
System (NOS) to provide the resources to the clients, but It requires a dedicated
network administrator to manage all the resources. reference model that describes
how moves through a physical medium to OSI consists of seven layers, and each
layer performs a particular network function. OSI model was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now
considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer  OSI model divides the
whole task int datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not
of the router that i