Design automation in construction – an overview

Marcus Sandberg, [email protected]

Luleå University of Technology, Sweden
Robert Gerth, [email protected]
Design Evolution Scandinavia AB, Sweden
Weizhuo Lu, [email protected]
Gustav Jansson, [email protected]
Jani Mukkavaara, [email protected]
Thomas Olofsson, [email protected]
Luleå University of Technology, Sweden

Abstract
As the construction industry continues its digital journey the applications within design
automation is growing, making development processes less time-demanding and more
organized. Design automation applications can show design impact on e.g. cost, equipment
availability, staff capabilities and buildability. It can also facilitate reuse of successful
solutions instead of reinventing the wheel for every project. Thanks to automation it becomes
easier to generate several solutions and trying different what-if-conditions. The field has
many different approaches but an overview for construction where the connections between
the different approaches are indicated is needed. The purpose of this paper is to describe
our view of how the design automation fields of building information modelling, master
models, knowledge-based engineering, configuration, modularization, platforms and
simulation are connected and to provide input to the design automation discussion in
construction. Each of these areas are introduced and then they are analyzed in relation to
each other and presented as an overview. These results will serve as a base for future
studies.

Keywords: Configuration, modularization, knowledge-based engineering, product and

process platforms, discrete-event simulation, master models

1 Introduction
The construction industry is being more and more digitalized as building information
modelling (BIM) (Eastman et al. 2011), internet technologies and other information
technologies are being adopted. More and more organizations start to see the benefits of IT
(Samuelsson 2012) which opens up for possibilities to evaluate the life cycle impact of early
design decisions. This can be done using rules that evaluate the design or by using
simulation such as discrete event simulation (DES) (Larsson et al. 2016). Taking the use of
virtual product models a step further is possible, by using one master model where changes
automatically propagate to connected models (Hoffman and Joan-Arinyo 1998). Trying what-
if scenarios virtually is more cost efficient than in real life and make it possible to have
several design candidates to choose from than only a few. Configuration (Jensen et al.
2015) and knowledge-based engineering (KBE) (Stokes 2001) let the computer do time
demanding routine work and frees up time for more creative development work. The
computer never gets bored, does the work quicker than us and does everything in the same
way every time which implies a quality control since the process of designing can be
standardized to a certain degree using approaches such as platforms (Simpson 2004) and
modularization (Holmqvist et at. 2003). Each of the mentioned concepts are related to
 Sandberg et al. 2016 Design automation in construction

design automation and have been described and studied (although to different degree)
within construction but there is a need for an overview that connect them to each other as a
first step to get a more holistic picture of design automation in construction. The purpose of
this paper is to describe our view of how the design automation fields of building information
modelling, master models, knowledge-based engineering, configuration, modularization,
platforms and simulation are connected and to provide input to the design automation
discussion in construction.

2 Design automation approaches

Automating chains of engineering activities is not new; this has been used by engineers
since the early developments of computer-aided modelling and simulation (Dixon 1995). The
term of design automation stems from automated design of electronical circuits and chips
(Macmillen et al 2000).

2.1 Building information modelling

Today’s CAD systems can be applied for much more than 3D modelling and the generation
of drawings. Building information modelling (BIM) is described as a modeling technology and
associated set of processes to produce, communicate, and analyze building models
(Eastman et al. 2011). BIM can reduce information losses since the models and information
ideally should follow the whole building process and only be created once. A standardized
BIM platform for information contains description of: terminology and related terms,
processes and shared information and how generated data are structured and stored. With
BIM objects the computer also understand that a piece of geometry for example is a window,
and treat it thereafter and not just like arbitrary geometry. From this the computer also knows
how many windows, what type, on which floor, inserted into what type of wall, having which
fire rating etc. The neutral format IFC (Industry Foundation Classes) goes hand in hand with
BIM since it enables the linking of different software systems to let the information travel
through the process.
Although offering many opportunities, the potential of BIM systems is often not fully
utilized and application is still quite limited to generating and exchanging traditional
documents, such as 2D drawings, in a digital format. The traditional way of exchanging
information in the construction industry is document centered. Examples are 2D drawings,
written specifications, manually calculated bills of quantities, etc. Although computers offer
substantial help today in the production of these documents, the data exchange and
management procedures are still focused on documents, which have an important legal
status. The use of tools that can handle 3D and objects has more than doubled by architects
and increased from 0 % to over 50 % by technical consultants from the year 2000 to 2011,
(Samuelson 2012).

2.2 Master models

Master model (MM) approaches aim at creating a geometry representation that can be
used for CAD, computer-aided manufacturing, and computer-aided engineering and other
analyses. Every change in the geometry representation is automatically or semi
automatically propagated to all domain-specific models. One of the first MM approaches was
reported by Newell and Evans (1976); a number of researchers have elaborated the MM
approach since, e.g.: Hoffman and Joan-Arinyo (1998) suggested an MM architecture
centered around a server and a repository to which different clients can connect to. These
clients can be CAD systems, geometrical dimensioning and tolerancing agents,
manufacturing process planners, or other downstream clients. Each client receives their view
of the design. Each design change made by one of the clients causes changes to other
clients’ views according to a change protocol and permissions. The architecture is semi-
automated and user interaction needed. Today’s CAD-system often support working linking
of different modelling activities that are available within the CAD-system, e.g. geometric
modelling and finite element modelling.

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 Sandberg et al. 2016 Design automation in construction

2.3 Knowledge-based engineering

The term knowledge-based engineering (KBE), has become a label for automating routine
design work within the manufacturing industry. It is named ‘knowledge-based’ because
knowledge from engineers is captured, formalized and implemented into a computer-based
design automation application. Typically design automation applications feature both fully
automated tasks as well as semi-automated tasks that require user-interaction and often
feature computer aided design and computer aided engineering systems. Stokes defines
KBE as ‘the use of advanced software techniques to capture and re-use product and
process knowledge in an integrated way’ (2001). Examples of KBE applications from the
latest decades are e.g., (Sandberg et al. 2005; La Rocca 2012). KBE applications usually
have geometry, configuration and engineering knowledge, (Lovett et al. 2000). Although
KBE is not artificial intelligence (Hopgood 2001) per se KBE has been seen as a merger of
AI and CAD which allow for implementation of analytical procedures and linking CAD-
systems to external simulation models (La Rocca 2012).

Figure 1 The MOKA phases, adapted from Stokes (2001).

MOKA is the most comprehensive methodology for KBE application development

although other less detailed methodologies exist, e.g. (Lovett et al. 2000). The focus of
MOKA is to describe how to capture engineering knowledge and implement it into a KBE
application (Stokes 2001). It was developed to aid Europe to catch up with the USA and the
Far East regarding KBE applications for mechanical design. MOKA contains six phases
which are shown in Figure 1. IDENTIFY determines objectives, scope and a concept level
technical specification for the design automation application. JUSTIFY examines
commercial, cultural and technical risks. CAPTURE collects the raw knowledge and
structures it into the Informal Model. FORMALIZE translates the Informal Model into the
Formal Model. PACKAGE involves translating the MOKA Formal Model into code for a KBE
application. ACTIVATE involves distribution, installation and use. CAPTURE and
FORMALIZE are the most elaborate phases which are supported by template documents
and a Unified Modeling Language-based approach.

2.4 Configuration
Product configuration can be described as a simplified design process of a product. In
principle most of the steps within the conventional design process are executed, but the
work is less comprehensive (Hvam et al 2006). Configuration is based on a generic product
platform that capture a customer segment needs and values. Throughout the configuration
process the specific customer requirements are specified, on the basis of a given framework
(platform), and detailed product can be generated. Hvam et al. (2008:33) defined product
configuration as “putting together a product from well-defined building blocks (modules)
according to a set of predefined rules and constraints”. This mean that most of the design
work of the building blocks have been accomplished in advance when developing the
generic product platform. The development work also identified the rules and constraint
considering how the buildings blocks can be combined and adapted to create a wide range
of different products. Therefore, the product configuration process can also be denoted as

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 Sandberg et al. 2016 Design automation in construction

the specification process (Jensen 2014). The modular product platform together with the
controlling rules enables that a specific product can be specified within the platform
limitations. Hence, the configuration work is about analyzing whether the required input data
is complete. If not, the missing data must be complemented or developed before the
configurator can be used (Hvam et al. 2004).
However, in most cases, it is too much information to manage manually why product
configurators are needed. Configurators are software systems that supports the
configuration process. Blecker and Abdelkafi (2006) define configurators as “software with
logic capabilities to create, maintain, and use electronic product models that allow definition
of all possible product options and variation combinations, with a minimum of data entries”.
Hence, product configurators manage all necessary information of the product architecture,
e.g. information about the modules, their constraints, variation rules and possible
combinations, in order to specify a tailored product (Helo 2006; Jensen 2014). The
configurator structures the information flow of the design work and reduces the iterations
between the process steps to a minimum. This streamlines the specification process and
creates performance improvements (Gerth et al. 2016).

2.5 Modules and modularization

A flexible or configurable product platform must consist of modules or product parts.
Modules are exchangeable product parts with same interface making it possible to create a
wide number of product configurations with a small number of product components (Jensen
2014). In a modular product platform, the architecture of the components is arranged in such
a way that cluster of components forms modules with one-to-one relation between a function
or requirement to the physical cluster of components (Ulrich 1995). The development work of
such a product platform is called modularization. Erixon (1998:58) define modularization as
“decomposition of a product into building blocks [modules] with specified interfaces, driven
by company specific reasons”. Hence, modularization is the development process of
modular product platform. Ericsson and Erixon (1999) presented a methodology called
Modular Function Deployment (MFD) for development of modular product platform
consisting of five steps: 1) Clarify, customer requirements, 2) Select technical solutions, 3)
Generate concepts, 4) Evaluate concepts, and 5) Improve each module. Holmqvist and
Persson (2003), divide the modularization process into three steps; (1) decomposition of the
product into functional or structural parts; (2) integration of modules and parts into a generic
product platform and (3) evaluation of the resulting product’s modular characteristics.
Smiding et al. (2016) describes how modular platforms within construction can be
developed: (1) analyzing many different and realized projects blueprints to capture and
evaluate market needs and requirements. Analyze and determine the variation in the
requirements and technical solutions. (2) Decompose the generic product architecture into
modules and parts, i.e. categorize the suggested technical solutions into modules. (3) At
conceptual level, analyze whether the suggested technical solutions can satisfy the
requirements identified in the previous steps. (4) Develop and determine the flexibility,
capabilities and constraints of each module and part. (5) When the functional requirements,
product architecture and product flexibility had been defined and controlled, the process of
developing the product configurator can be initiated.

2.6 Platforms
According to Meyer and Lehnerd (1997:7) product platforms are “a set of common
components, modules, or parts from which a stream of derivative products can be efficiently
developed and launched”. A product family is derived from the platform and can be either
module-based or scale-based (Simpson 2004).
Some benefits of using platforms for design and production include: a) greater ability to
tailor products to the needs of different market, segments or customers, b) reduction of
development cost and time, c) reduction of manufacturing cost, d) reduction of production
investment, e) reduction of systemic complexity, f) lower risk and g) improved service.

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 Sandberg et al. 2016 Design automation in construction

Robertson and Ulrich (1998) presented a platform planning strategy with design methods
that balanced client needs with production costs. Studies of the automotive, computer and
telecom industries describe the product platform as a collection of assets, which are shared
by a set of products sorted into components, processes, knowledge and relationships
(Meyer and Lehnerd 1997, Robertson and Ulrich 1998).
By studying product development in product platforms, Meyer and Lehnerd (1997)
presented the Power Tower model, showing the elements of market instantiation by product
families, product platforms nurturing several product families and the four basic assets
serving as building blocks in the platform. A focal point in Robertson and Ulrich’s (1998)
platform planning is the balance between commonality and distinctiveness.
Commonality refers to repetition of functions, physical components or technical solutions
(Jiao et al. 2007) and can be used at different levels of a product as well as in and between
products. Commonality is the common base of a platform and the driver for simplicity and
cost. Common parts appear in every product model produced within the platform. From a
client point of view, the commonality in a platform provides no variety between models.
When adding distinctiveness, individual product uniqueness is created.
In a similar way, process platforms represent standard routings, thus facilitating
production configuration for diverse product family design solutions to enable
manufacturability and cost commitment (Jiao et al. 2007).

2.7 Simulation
Construction Process Simulation has been used for evaluating and redesigning construction
projects since the development of CYCLic Operations Network (CYCLONE) (Halpin and
Riggs 1992). It provides useful tools to evaluate the performances of construction projects
under alternative resource allocation and process planning by modelling the dynamic
interactions between resources and processes (Kim and Gibson 2003). Alvanchi et al.
(2011) simulated the construction processes of a structural steel bridge to optimize the
project duration by comparing potential plans associated with both the on-site construction
process and off-site fabrication shops. Jeong et al. (2006) built a supply chain simulation
model of manufactured housing to identify bottlenecks and hence improve flows of materials
through the chain.
Based on construction process simulation, database driven simulation has been
proposed as a more intelligent and automatic modelling approach. In this approach, a
simulation model can be parameterized by data provided through a set of sources such as
data forms, tables, and spreadsheets. Nasereddin et al. (2007) introduced an approach to
automatically develop simulation models of modular housing manufacturing processes. The
production system parameters (e.g., activity name, average processing time, and activity
precedence) are entered into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, which is used to automatically
generate a simulation model. A BIM–DES framework has also been proposed by Lu and
Olofsson (2014), in which a building information modeling process exports the product and
process information to database; the database driven simulation model evaluates the
construction performances and provides valuable feedback to the BIM process for decision
support. Akhavian and Behzadan (2014), proposed a framework for knowledge-based
simulation of construction processes, which extracted knowledge and data-driven
simulations were used to update corresponding simulation models. Wang et al. (2014)
investigates the mechanisms that collect, store, and transfer information among various
software packages, thus uses the BIMs ability with regard to quantity take-off of materials to
support construction process simulation.

3 Analysis and discussion

One way to show the connection between the different design automation approaches
mentioned here is as shown in Figure 2. We see BIM, KBE, configuration and simulation
having direct connection to design automation while platforms, modularization and master
models have indirect connection to design automation. In this section similarities and
differences between some of the different approaches are discussed as well as the roles of

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 Sandberg et al. 2016 Design automation in construction

other approaches in construction. It ends with a discussion of design automation

methodologies.

Figure 2 Map of chosen design automation approaches in construction.

3.1 Similarities between BIM and master-models

BIM can be seen as an umbrella term for design automation in construction. One of the
foundations of BIM; that information should only be created once and stored in one place
has connections to master-models. Having one master model where the information about
the definition of the product, i.e. its design, governing logic is stored in one model instead of
several models.
Using the neutral format IFC it is possible to link models although some manual work
usually is required to get the second model usable. For example, when doing 5D BIM the
first model created in a 3D-BIM environment can be linked to another software for cost
estimation and scheduling but the default setup requires quite much manual work. To be
able to increase the automation of such 5D BIM activities there is a need to repetitiveness in
the construction project so cost recipes can be reused, and building objects can be labeled
consistently. In Figure 3 a representation of an arbitrary Master model for construction is
presented where different domain models are linked. Master models can be built using KBE.

Figure 3 An arbitrary master model for construction.

3.2 Differences between configuration and knowledge-based engineering

According to Lovett et al (2000) configuration is part of KBE as the matching of valid
combinations of components. KBE is also more than configuration and offers both the
implementation of analytical procedures and linking to external models (La Rocca 2012).
Configuration examples from construction (Jensen et al 2015) are usually for detailed
structural design while KBE examples (from the manufacturing industry) also can be for

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 Sandberg et al. 2016 Design automation in construction

stages prior to detailed design (La Rocca 2012). Developing similar KBE applications which
offer configuration and linking to analysis models for earlier construction design activities
should be possible.

3.3 The importance of platforms in configuration

Product platforms arguably have the largest importance for configuration compared to
process platforms since product platforms define the design space possible for configuration
through commonality and variability. Process platforms affect the constructability of the
design in terms of efficiency and cost. The configuration activity can be done without a
process platform but would probably be more efficient if a process platform is at hand.
The subsystems and components within a platform can be either modular or scalar as
Simpson (2004) noted. If being more scalable more effort is needed to define the rules that
should handle the morphological and topological transformations, compared to being more
modular where more effort is needed to develop each module and their interfaces.

3.4 The importance of simulation for construction

Data-driven simulations are particularly suitable for construction projects where product,
process and supply chain configuration data and related knowledge are stored and
maintained in a database, and the main purpose of simulation is to evaluate alternative
configurations, such as industrialized construction project.
By comparing performances of alternative configuration, different product design,
process planning and supply chain can be explored in order to identify the optimized
configuration according to the specific requirements of projects. Data-driven simulation might
be systematically integrated with BIM, knowledge based engineering, product and process
platforms.

3.5 Balancing structure and flexibility of design automation methods

Even though the MOKA methodology (Stokes 2001) is the most comprehensive
methodology within KBE there are few examples presented where MOKA has been adopted.
The reason for this might be that MOKA is too structured and does not permit enough
flexibility or that some companies, at least within the aerospace and automotive industries,
already have their own best practice for design automation. But within construction the
design automation methodologies are probably not as common although there may be
exceptions within the advanced structural engineering field of construction which depend
more on calculations and computer simulation.
Examples of successful bottom up developments of methodologies or processes within
construction have been presented by e.g. (Jensen et al 2015; Smiding et al 2016) where
challenges are noted as for example maintaining the configurators during their life-time
(Jensen et al 2015). The possibility of having more flexible or less defined methodologies is
dependent on the staff being more experienced in the design automation field. Having
people with both construction background, e.g. civil engineering, architectural engineering,
and computer science is a big advantage.

3.6 When is it valuable to automate and not?

Activities being routine, repetitive and time demanding are usually more suitable for
automation since they usually handle explicit information and knowledge and therefore are
easier to formalize compare to more tacit information and knowledge. Computational
intelligence, (Hopgood, 2001), more numerical or soft computing approaches such as neural
networks, evolutionary algorithms, fuzzy logic, is one way to handle more tacit, intangible
information. According to Stokes (2001) knowledge availability, organizational readiness (IT
maturity), hardware and software availability is important to consider before choosing to
automate. If the experts are unwilling to share their knowledge, then it is hard to do
knowledge acquisition. There is also a balance of knowing how much to automate, what
variance to provide in the design automation tool. This can be evaluated by analyzing
previous orders to find similarities and defining the product variance. The success of such
decision are dependent on future orders.

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4 Conclusion
In the map presented in Figure 2 we have deliberately chosen to include a specific number
of fields which we argue have a connection to design automation. The map could be
developed and expanded with other approaches as well e.g. AI, genetic algorithms, fuzzy
logic (Hopgods 2001). The map show our view of design automation and work as input to
the discussion of what design automation within construction is, to be able to form a future
more comprehensive overall picture that helps researchers and practitioners within
construction to explore new digitalization possibilities.

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