CHAPTER FOUR

SAMPLING DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

4.1. Sampling Design
The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the
preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research design”.
Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning an inquiry
or a research study constitute a research design. “A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to
the research purpose with economy in procedure.”
In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. As such the
design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and its
operational implications to the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the design decisions
happen to be in respect of:
1) What is the study about?
2) Why is the study being made?
3) Where will the study be carried out?
4) What type of data is required?
5) Where can the required data be found?
6) What periods of time will the study include?
7) What will be the sample design?
8) What techniques of data collection will be used?
9) How will the data be analyzed?
10) In what style will the report be prepared?
Keeping in view the above stated design decisions; one may split the overall research design
into the following parts:
a) The sampling design which deals with the method of selecting items to be observed
for the given study;
b) the observational design which relates to the conditions under which the observations
are to be made;
c) the statistical design which concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed; and
d) The operational design which deals with the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
From what has been stated above, we can state the important features of a research design as under:

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 i. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research problem.
ii. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data.
iii. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints.
In brief, research design must, at least, contain
a) A clear statement of the research problem;
b) Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information;
c) The population to be studied;
d) Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data.
4.2. Census and Sample Survey
All items in any field of inquiry constitute a „Universe‟ or „Population.‟ A complete
enumeration of all items in the „population‟ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed
that in such an inquiry, when all items are covered, no element of chance is left and highest
accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in
such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of observation increases. Moreover,
there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of
sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy.
Therefore, when the field of inquiry is large, this method becomes difficult to adopt because of
the resources involved. At times, this method is practically beyond the reach of ordinary
researchers. Perhaps, government is the only institution which can get the complete enumeration
carried out. Even the government adopts this in very rare cases such as population census
conducted once in a decade. Further, many a time it is not possible to examine every item in the
population, and sometimes it is possible to obtain sufficiently accurate results by studying only a
part of total population. In such cases there is no utility of census surveys.
However, it needs to be emphasized that when the universe is a small one, it is no use resorting
to a sample survey. When field studies are undertaken in practical life, considerations of time
and cost almost invariably lead to a selection of respondents i.e., selection of only a few items.
The respondents selected should be as representative of the total population as possible in order
to produce a miniature cross-section. The selected respondents constitute what is technically
called a „sample‟ and the selection process is called „sampling technique.‟ The survey so
conducted is known as „sample survey‟. Algebraically, let the population size be N and if a part
of size n (which is < N) of this population is selected according to some rule for studying some
characteristic of the population, the group consisting of these n units is known as „sample‟.
Researcher must prepare a sample design for his study i.e., he must plan how a sample should be
selected and of what size such a sample would be.

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4.3. Need for Research Design
Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with
minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Just as for better, economical and attractive
construction of a house, we need a blueprint (or what is commonly called the map of the house)
well thought out and prepared by an expert architect, similarly we need a research design or a
plan in advance of data collection and analysis for our research project.

Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted for collecting the
relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the
research and the availability of staff, time and money. Preparation of the research design should
be done with great care as any error in it may upset the entire project.

Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived at and as such
constitutes the firm foundation of the entire edifice of the research work. Even then the need for
a well thought out research design is at times not realized by many. The importance which this
problem deserves is not given to it. As a result many researches do not serve the purpose for
which they are undertaken.

In fact, they may even give misleading conclusions. Thoughtlessness in designing the research
project may result in rendering the research exercise futile. It is, therefore, imperative that an
efficient and appropriate design must be prepared before starting research operations. The design
helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form where by it will be possible for him to look
for flaws and inadequacies. Such a design can even be given to others for their comments and
critical evaluation. In the absence of such a course of action, it will be difficult for the critic to
provide a comprehensive review of the proposed study.
4.4. Steps in Sample Design
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:
1) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set
of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or
infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite universe
the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of items.
The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are examples of

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 finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio program,
throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.
2) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of
such units that he has to select for his study.
3) Source list: It is also known as „sampling frame‟ from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is
not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct,
reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of
the population as possible.
4) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. This is a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should
neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one
which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.
While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as also an
acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of population variance needs to be
considered as in case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of
population must be kept in view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of
interest in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample. Costs
too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must
invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.
5) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of
the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be interested
in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in the population, or we may
be interested in knowing some average or the other measure concerning the population.
There may also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we would like to
make estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the sample design we would accept.
6) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major
impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of
sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.
7) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use
i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In
fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are several sample

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 designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which the researcher must choose one for
his study. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a
given cost, has a smaller sampling error.
4.5. Criteria of Selecting Sampling Procedures
In this context one must remember that two costs are involved in a sampling analysis viz., the
cost of collecting the data and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data.
Researcher must keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences viz., systematic bias and
sampling error. Systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be
reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. At best the causes responsible for these
errors can be detected and corrected.
Usually a systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following factors:
1. Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased
representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.
2. Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result in
systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the
interviewer is biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring device is defective there will be
systematic bias in the data collected through such a measuring device.
3. Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the
sample, there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a situation the likelihood
of establishing contact or receiving a response from an individual is often correlated with the
measure of what is to be estimated.
4. Indeterminacy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under
observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations. For instance, if workers
are aware that somebody is observing them in course of a work study on the basis of which
the average length of time to complete a task will be determined and accordingly the quota
will be set for piecework, they generally tend to work slowly in comparison to the speed with
which they work if kept unobserved. Thus, the indeterminacy principle may also be a cause of
a systematic bias.
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is
often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries. There is usually a downward bias in the
income data collected by government taxation department, whereas we find an upward bias in
the income data collected by some social organization. People in general understate their
incomes if asked about it for tax purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for social
status or their affluence. Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they
think is the „correct‟ answer rather than revealing their true feelings.

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 6) Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around the true population
parameters. Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in either direction, their
nature happens to be of compensatory type and the expected value of such errors happens to
be equal to zero. Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size of the sample, and it
happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous population.

Sampling error can be measured for a given sample design and size. The measurement of
sampling error is usually called the „precision of the sampling plan‟. If we increase the sample
size, the precision can be improved. But increasing the size of the sample has its own
limitations viz., a large sized sample increases the cost of collecting data and also enhances
the systematic bias. Thus the effective way to increase precision is usually to select a better
sampling design which has a smaller sampling error for a given sample size at a given cost. In
practice, however, people prefer a less precise design because it is easier to adopt the same
and also because of the fact that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way in such a
design. In brief, while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the
procedure causes a relatively small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in
a better way.
4.6. Types of sampling
4.6.1. Probability sampling
It is also known as random sampling or chance sampling.
Under this design every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample, i.e.
It is blind chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is select.
The results obtained can be assured in terms of probability. We can measure the errors of
estimation or the significance of results obtained.
It ensures the law of statistical regularity which states that if on an average the sample chosen is
a random one, the sample will have the same composition & characteristics as the universe.

In short it gives each element in the population an equal probability of getting in to the sample,
and all choices are independent of each other.
So simple random sample from a finite population is a sample which is choosen in such a way
that each of NCn possible samples has the same probability, 1/NCn, of being selected
Example: If we have a finite population consisting of six elements (say a,b, c, d, e, f) , i.e. N= 6, & we
want to take a sample of size n=3, than there are 6C3=20 samples, abc, abd, abe, abf, acd, ace, acf, ade,
adf, aef, dcd, bce, bcf, bde, bdf, bef, cde, cdf, cef, & def. Then we choose one of these samples.
4.6.1.1. How to select a random sample

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1) We can write each of the possible samples on a ship of paper, mix these ships thoroughly in a
container & then draw as a lottery.
2) We can write the name of each element of a finite population on a ship of paper, put them into a
box or a bag then mix them thoroughly & then draw the required number of ships for the sample
one after the other without replacement.
3) We can also use the random number tables developed by Tippet. He gave 10400 four figure
numbers.
Example: We are interested in taking a sample of 10 units from a population of 5000 units
bearing numbers from 3001 to 8000. So we shall select 10 such figures which are not less than
3001 & not greater than 8000.
2952 6641 3992 9792 7979 5911
3170 5624 4167 9525 1545 1396
7203 5356 1300 2643 2370 7483
3408 2769 3563 6107 6913 7691
5060 5246 112 9025 6008 8126
If we read from left to right, we have
6641, 3992, 7979, 5911, 3170, 5624, 4167, 7203, 5365, 7483

a) Multi-stage sampling
~ Sequence of samples is drawn from samples already selected but only the last sample of
subjects is studied
~ The main advantage of this sampling procedure is that it allows the establishment of a
sample this is directly related to the research object. With every additional drawing, the
sample becomes more specific & more relevant to the research in question, & the results
are expected to become equally relevant & more representative.
Steps:
1. A sample frame for the target group
2. A large probability sample is chosen the units of this sample are referred to as primary
selection units. A sample from the primary selection units is then chosen.
3. After a criteria for respondents has been identified, are there sample is drawn from the
previous sample. This is repeated until the target sample size is reached.
4. The last drawing constitutes the sample of the study.
b) Stratified random sampling
Population is divided in to strata & a sample is drawn from each stratum. The dimension
could be made on one or more criteria.

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 Example: Sex age, economic status, etc.
~ The sample size could be proportionate or disproportionate to the units of the target
population. But usually proportionate
~ A stratified sample is employed when there is a need to represent all groups of the target
population, & when the researcher has a special interest in certain strata. In this sense, the
method is very economical, offers accurate results & a high degree of representativeness.
Steps:
1. Divide the population in to a number of strata
2. Develop sample frames for each group
3. Employ one of the methods discussed above.
4. Merge the individual samples.
c) Cluster sampling
Employed when there is:
~ No sampling frame is available
~ Economic considerations are significant
~ Cluster criteria are significant
Characteristics:
The first group of elements (clusters) are selected, then individual elements are selected from
these clusters
- Disadvantage: Choice of cluster may not represent the whole spectrum of the population.
d) Snow ball Sampling
The researcher begins with few respondents who are available.
They subsequently ask these respondents to recommend any other person who meets the
criteria of the research & who might be willing to participate in the project.
This procedure is continued until the desired sample is obtained.
4.6.2. Non- probability sampling
~ Is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability
that each item in the population has the chance of being included in the sample.
~ It is known by different names such as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling, judgment
sampling.
Items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher.
There is no assurance that every element has some specifiable chance of being included.
~ Sampling error can‟t be estimated & element of bias great or small is always there.
~ No-Probability sampling: (Deliberate or purposive sampling)
We can have various sorts of non-probability sampling:

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 a) Convenience sampling: When population elements are selected based on ease of access.
b) Judgment sampling: the researchers judgment is used for selecting items which he
considers as representatives of the population,
c) Quota sampling: In a stratified population the cost of taking random samples from each
strata is often so expensive, so the actual selection of items is left to the interviewers
judgment. The size of the quota for each stratum is often proportionate to the size of that
stratum.
d) Systematic sampling: is the selection of certain items in a series according to a
predetermined sequence. The origin of the sequence must be controlled by chance & then
by a predetermined sequence.
Non-probability samplings do not employ the rules of probability, do not claim
representativeness, & are usually used for qualitative analysis.

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