CHAPTER 8 : THE NANO WORLD

OVERVIEW:
Many things have changed in our society nowadays. Modern technologies
continuously arise globally particularly the use of nanotechnology. People are not aware
that this technology is already being used in their everyday lives.
Nanoscale materials have been used for decades in applications ranging from
window glass and sunglasses to car bumpers and paints. Now, however, the convergence of
scientific disciplines (chemistry, biology, electronics, physics, engineering etc.) is leading to
a multiplication of applications in materials manufacturing, computer chips, medical
diagnosis and health care, energy, biotechnology, space exploration, security and so on.
Hence, nanotechnology is expected to have a significant impact on our economy and society
within the next 10 to 15 years.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Explain the concept of Nanotechnology;
2. Discuss the applications of Nanotechnolgy:
3. Discuss the major impacts (both potential and realized) of nanotechnology on
society;

EXPANDING YOUR KNOWLEDGE:

NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanoscience is the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic,
molecular and macromolecular scales, in order to understand and exploit properties that
differ significantly from those on a larger scale. Nanotechnologies are the design,
characterization, production and application of structures, devices and systems by
controlling shape and size on ananometer scale.
In other words, nanotechnology is a technology that manipulate and control a
substance at the nanometer (nm) level (The nanometer level is the level of atoms and
molecules), and create new materials and devices with fascinating functions making the
best use of the special properties of nanosized substances. For example, today people need
devices able to store information at high densities and high speeds, using little energy. One
wat to realize this is to make each component very small. However, as there are limits to
miniaturizing components with existing technology, there is also a need for a technology
that uses a different (nanotechnology) approach to process components and systems with
nanometer-level precision. Also, when the size of hte matter is at the level of several
molecules or atoms, certain properties (the quantum effect or the surface effect) are
classsified, which are not noticeable when a substance is a large mass. Therefore, the
downsizing to the nanometer level can provide the consumers not only the miniatures but
also comnpletely new devices operated by such special properties.
A nanometer (nm) is one thousand millionth of a meter. A single human hair is
about 80,000 nm wide, a red blood cell is approximately 7,000 nm wide, a DNA molecule 2
to 2.5 nm, and a water molecule almost 0.3 nm. The term ”nanotechnology” was created by
Norio Taniguchi of Tokyo University in 1974 to describe the precision manufacture of
materials with nanometer tolerances1 , but its origins date back to Richard
Feynman’s 1959 talk ”There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom”2 in which he proposed the
direct manipulation of individual atoms as a more powerful form of synthetic chemistry.
Modern industrial nanotechnology had its origins in the 1930s, in processes used to
create silver coatings for photographic film; and chemists have been making polymers,
which are large molecules made up of nanoscale subunits, for many decades. However, the
earliest known use of nanoparticles is in the ninth century during the Abbasid dynasty.
Arab potters used nanoparticles in their glazes so that objects would change colour
depending on the viewing angle (the so-called polychrome lustre) .
The properties of materials can be different on a nanoscale for two main reasons.
First, nanomaterials have, relatively, a larger surface area than the same mass of material
produced in a larger form. This can make materials more chemically reactive (in some
cases materials that are inert in their larger form are reactive when produced in their
nanoscale form), and affect their strength or electrical properties. Second, below 50 nm, the
laws of classical physics give way to quantum effects, provoking optical, electrical and
magnetic behaviours different from those of the same material at a larger scale. These
effects can give materials very useful physical properties such as exceptional electrical
conduction or resistance, or a high capacity for storing or transferring heat, and can even
modify biological properties, with silver for example becoming a bactericide on a
nanoscale.

The three of the most talked-about nanotechnologies are carbon nanotubes, nanoparticles,
and quantum dots.

1. Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes, long thin cylinders of atomic layers of graphite, may be the most
significant new material since plastics and are the most significant of today’s
nanomaterials. They come in a range of different structures, allowing a wide variety of
properties. They are generally classified as single-walled (SWNT), consisting of a single
cylindrical wall, or multiwalled nanotubes (MWNT), which have cylinders within the
cylinders.

Some proposed uses for nanotubes:

a. Chemical and Genetic Probes. A nanotube-tipped atomic force microscope can trace a
strand of DNA and identify chemical markers that reveal which of several possible variants
of a gene is present in the strand.
b. Field Emission Based Devices. Carbon Nanotubes have been demonstrated to be efficient
field emitters and are currently being incorporated in several applications
including flat-panel display for television sets or computers or any devices requiring an
electron producing cathode such as X-ray sources (e.g. for medical applications).
c. Supersensitive Sensors. Semiconducting nanotubes change their electrical resistance
dramatically when exposed to alkalis, halogens and other gases at room temperature,
raising hopes for better chemical sensors. The sensitivity of these devices is 1,000 times
that of standard solid state devices.
d. Sharper Scanning Microscope. Attached to the tip of a scanning probe microscope,
nanotubes can boost the instruments’ lateral resolution by a factor of 10 or more, allowing
clearer views of proteins and other large molecules.
e. Superstrong Materials. Embedded into a composite, nanotubes have enormous resilience
and tensile strength and could be used to make materials with better safety
features, such as cars with panels that absorb significantly more of the force of a collision
than traditional materials, or girders that bend rather than rupture in an earthquake.
Nanotubes still cost 10 to 1,000 times more than the carbon fibers currently used
in composites.

2. Nanoparticles
Nanoparticles have been used since antiquity by ceramists in China and the West,
while 1.5 million tons of carbon black, the most abundant nanoparticulate material, are
produced every year. Metal oxide ceramic, metal, and silicate nanoparticles constitute the
most common of the new generation of nanoparticles. A substance called chitosan for
example, used in hair conditioners and skin creams, has been made in nanoparticle form to
improve absorption.
Moving to nanoscale changes the physical properties of particles, notably by
increasing the ratio of surface area to volume, and the emergence of quantum effects.
High surface area is a critical factor in the performance of catalysis and structures such as
electrodes, allowing improvement in performance of such technologies as fuel cells and
batteries. The large surface area also results in useful interactions between the materials in
nanocomposites, leading to special properties such as increased strength and/or increased
chemical/heat resistance. The fact that nanoparticles have dimensions below the critical
wavelength of light renders them transparent, an effect exploited in packaging, cosmetics
and coatings.

3. Quantum dots
Just as carbon nanotubes are often described as the new plastics, so quantum dots
are defined as the ball bearings of the nano-age11. Quantum dots are like “artificial atoms”.
They are 1 nm structures made of materials such as silicon, capable of confining a single
electron, or a few thousand, whose energy states can be controlled by applying a given
voltage. In theory, this could be used to fulfil the alchemist’s dream of changing the
chemical nature of a material.
Quantum dots can be made to emit light at different wavelengths, with the smaller
the dot the bluer the light. The dots emit over a narrow spectrum making them well suited
to imaging, particularly for biological samples. The wide range of colors that can be
produced by quantum dots also means they have great potential in security. They could, for
example, be hidden in bank notes or credit cards, producing a unique visible image when
exposed to ultraviolet light. It is possible to make light-emitting diodes (LEDs) from
quantum dots which could produce white light e.g. for buildings or cars. By controlling the
amount of blue in the emission-control the "flavor" or "tone" of the white light can be
tuned. Quantum dots are also possible materials for making ultrafast, all-optical switches
and logic gates that work faster than 15 terabits a second. Biologists are experimenting
with composites of living cells and
quantum dots. These could possibly be used to repair damaged neural pathways or to
deliver drugs by activating the dots with light.

Nanoscale materials, as mentioned above, have been used for many decades in
several applications, are already present in a wide range of products, including mass-
market consumer products.

Some of the uses of nanotechnologies in consumer products:

1. A glass for windows which is coated with titanium oxide nanoparticles that react to
sunlight to break down dirt. When water hits the glass, it spreads evenly over the surface,
instead of forming droplets, and runs off rapidly, taking the dirt with it.
2. Nanotechnologies are used by the car industry to reinforce certain properties of car
bumpers and to improve the adhesive properties of paints.
3. Sunglasses using protective and antireflective ultrathin polymer coatings.
Nanotechnology also offers scratch-resistant coatings based on nanocomposites
that are transparent, ultra-thin, simple to care for, wellsuited for daily use and reasonably
priced.
4. Textiles can incorporate nanotechnology to make practical improvements to such
properties as windproofing and waterproofing, preventing wrinkling or staining, and
guarding against electrostatic discharges. The windproof and waterproof properties of one
ski jacket, for example, are obtained not by a surface coating of the jacket but by the use of
nanofibers.
5. Sports equipment manufacturers are also turning to nanotech. A high-performance ski
wax, which produces a hard and fast-gliding surface, is already in
use. The ultra-thin coating lasts longer than conventional waxing systems. Tennis rackets
with carbon nanotubes have increased torsion and flex resistance. The rackets are more
rigid than current carbon rackets and pack more power. Long-lasting tennis-balls are made
by coating the inner core with clay polymer nanocomposites and have twice the lifetime of
conventional balls.
6. Sunscreens and cosmetics based on nanotech are already widely used. Customers like
products that are translucent because they suggest purity and cleanliness, and L’Oréal
discovered that when lotions are ground down to 50 or 60 nms, they let light through. For
sunscreens, mineral nanoparticles such as titanium dioxide offer several
advantages.Titanium dioxide nanoparticles have a comparable UV protection property as
the bulk material, but lose the cosmetically undesirable whitening as the particle size is
decreased. For anti-wrinkle creams, a polymer capsule is used to transport active agents
like vitamins.
7. Televisions using carbon nanotubes could be in use by late 2006 according to Samsung16.
Manufacturers expect these "field effect displays," (FED) to consume
less energy than plasma or liquid crystal display (LCD) sets and combine the thinness of
LCD and the image quality of traditional cathode ray tubes (CRT).

Some of the foreseen applications of Nanotechnology in the medium term:

The following list gives a quick overview of the many domains where
nanotechnology is expected to fundamentally change products and how they are
produced over the next two decades.

Electronics and communications: recording using nanolayers and dots, flat-panel

displays, wireless technology, new devices and processes across the entire range of
communication and information technologies, factors of thousands to millions
improvements in both data storage capacity and processing speeds and at lower cost and
improved power efficiency compared to present electronic circuits
Chemicals and materials: catalysts that increase the energy efficiency of chemical plants
and improve the combustion efficiency (thus lowering pollution emission) of motor
vehicles, super-hard and tough (i.e., not brittle) drill bits and cutting tools, "smart"
magnetic fluids for vacuum seals and lubricants
Pharmaceuticals, healthcare, and life sciences: nanostructured drugs, gene and drug
delivery systems targeted to specific sites in the body, bio-compatible replacements for
body parts and fluids, self-diagnostics for use in the home, sensors for labs-on-a-chip,
material for bone and tissue regeneration
Manufacturing: precision engineering based on new generations of microscopes and
measuring techniques, new processes and tools to manipulate matter at an atomic level,
nanopowders that are sintered into bulk materials with special properties that may include
sensors to detect incipient failures and actuators to repair problems, chemical-mechanical
polishing with nanoparticles, self-assembling of structures from molecules, bio-inspired
materials and biostructures
Energy technologies: new types of batteries, artificial photosynthesis for clean energy,
quantum well solar cells, safe storage of hydrogen for use as a clean fuel, energy savings
from using lighter materials and smaller circuits
Space exploration: lightweight space vehicles, economic energy generation and
management, ultra small and capable robotic systems
Environment: selective membranes that can filter contaminants or even salt from water,
nanostructured traps for removing pollutants from industrial effluents, characterization of
the effects of nanostructures in the environment, maintenance of industrial sustainability
by significant reductions in materials and energy use, reduced sources of pollution,
increased opportunities for recycling
National security: detectors and detoxifiers of chemical and biological agents,
dramatically more capable electronic circuits, hard nanostructured coatings
and materials, camouflage materials, light and self repairing textiles, blood replacement,
miniaturized surveillance systems.

Nanotechnology and the situation of developing countries

While research and development in nanotechnology is quite limited in most
developing countries, there will be increasing opportunities to import nano products and
processes. It can be argued of course that nanotechnology could make the situation of
developing countries worse by reducing demand for their exports, notably raw materials.
Moreover, even in developing countries, few nanotech projects specifically target the needs
of the poor, leading to fears of a ”nano divide” similar to the digital divide.
For developing countries, the top 10 nanotechnology applications are:
1. Energy. Nanomaterials are being used to build a new generation of solar cells, hydrogen
fuel cells and novel hydrogen storage systems that could deliver clean energy to countries
still reliant on traditional, non-renewable contaminating fuels. Advances in the creation of
synthetic nanomembranes embedded with proteins are capable of turning light into
chemical energy. If successfully developed on an industrial scale, such technologies could
help developing countries avoid recurrent shortages and price
fluctuations that come with dependence on fossil fuels, as well as the environmental
consequences of mining and burning oil and coal.
2. Agriculture. Researchers are developing a range of inexpensive nanotech applications
to increase soil fertility and crop production, and help eliminate malnutrition – a
contributor to more than half the deaths of children under five in developing countries.
Nanotech materials are in development for the slow release and efficient dosage of
fertilisers for plants and of nutrients and medicines for livestock. Other agricultural
developments include nanosensors to monitor the health of crops and farm animals and
magnetic nanoparticles to remove soil contaminants.
3. Water treatment. Nano-membranes and nano-clays are inexpensive, portable and
easily cleaned systems that purify, detoxify and desalinate water more efficiently than
conventional bacterial and viral filters. Researchers also have developed a method of
largescale production of carbon nano-tube filters for water quality improvement. Other
water applications include systems (based on titanium dioxide and on magnetic
nanoparticles) that decompose organic pollutants and remove salts and heavy metals from
liquids, enabling the use of heavily contaminated and salt water for irrigation and drinking.
Several of the contaminating substances retrieved could then be easily recycled.
4. Disease diagnosis and screening. Technologies include the "lab-on-a-chip", which
offers all the diagnostic functions of a medical laboratory, and other biosensors based on
nanotubes, wires, magnetic particles and semiconductor crystals (quantum dots). These
inexpensive, hand-held diagnostic kits detect the presence of several pathogens at once and
could be used for wide-range screening in small peripheral clinics. Other nanotechnology
applications are in development that would greatly enhance medical imaging.
5. Drug delivery systems. Nano-capsules, dendrimers (tiny bush-like spheres made of
branched polymers), and "buckyballs" (soccerball-shaped structures made of 60 carbon
atoms) for slow, sustained drug release systems, characteristics valuable for countries
without adequate drug storage capabilities and distribution networks. Nanotechnology
could also potentially reduce transportation costs and even required dosages by improving
shelf-life, thermo-stability and resistance to changes in humidity of existing medications;
6. Food processing and storage. Improved plastic film coatings for food packaging and
storage may enable a wider and more efficient distribution of food products to remote
areas in less industrialised countries; antimicrobial emulsions made with nano-materials
for the decontamination of food equipment, packaging, or food; and nanotech-based
sensors to detect and identify contamination;
7. Air pollution remediation. Nanotech-based innovations that destroy air pollutants
with light; make catalytic converters more efficient, cheaper and better controlled; detect
toxic materials and leaks; reduce fossil fuel emissions; and separate gases.
8. Construction. Nano-molecular structures to make asphalt and concrete more resistant
to water; materials to block ultraviolet and infrared radiation; materials for cheaper
and
durable housing, surfaces, coatings, glues, concrete, and heat and light exclusion; and
selfcleaning for windows, mirrors and toilets.
9. Health monitoring. Nano-devices are being developed to keep track of daily changes in
physiological variables such as the levels of glucose, of carbon dioxide, and of cholesterol,
without the need for drawing blood in a hospital setting. For example, patients suffering
from diabetes would know at any given time the concentration of sugar in their blood;
similarly, patients with heart diseases would be able to monitor their cholesterol levels
constantly.
10. Disease vector and pest detection control. Nanoscale sensors for pest detection, and
improved pesticides, insecticides, and insect repellents.

Risks of Nanotechnology
The emphasis on what kind of risks involved in nanotechnologies that need to be
considered depends on the perspective of the particular organization.
These are:
• business risks involved with marketing of nanotechnology enabled products,
• risks related to the protection of intellectual property,
• political risks regarding the impact on the economical development of countries and
regions,
• environmental risks from the release of nanoparticles into the environment,
• safety risks from nanoparticles for workers and consumers.

Implications of nanotechnology on human health and the environment

A fair assessment of the risks of any new technology must also consider positive
contributions to increased safety. The basic innovations that come from nanotechnologies
have the potential to contribute to human health and environmental safety in many ways.
They have the potential to contribute to solve urgent issues like the provision of clean
drinking water or more efficient energy conversion and energy storage. The potential of
nanotechnologies regarding economic benefits, the potential to create jobs, wealth and well
being is very high.
The economic growth in the field of nanotechnologies will lead to an increased
variety and increased volumes of engineered nanoparticles that are produced. Keeping in
mind that these ”free nanoparticles” can enter the human body over various pathways
(inhalation, ingestion or via the skin) or disperse into the environment, it is important to
understand the implications for human health and the ecosystems.
It is necessary to understand both, the hazards associated with nanomaterials and
the levels of exposure, that are likely to occur. In both areas, the existing knowledge is quite
limited and it will be necessary to generate and establish new data in the future.

HUMAN HEALTH
 In the field of medicine, there are quite a few technological developments that
promise enhanced diagnostic possibilities, new ways to monitor patients, new ways to
treat diseases like cancer and to reduce side effects.

To give a few examples:

• Nanoparticles can be used as carriers for targeted drug delivery. Their ability to penetrate
certain protective membranes in the body, such as the bloodbrain barrier, can be beneficial
for many drugs. This could open the way for new drugs from active substances that have
not been able to pass clinical trials due to less precise delivery mechanisms.
• Nanosensors and lab-on-a-chip-technologies will foster early recognition and identification
of diseases and can be used for continuous monitoring of patients with chronic diseases.

Some undesirable implications of nanotechnology to human:

a. When bulk materials are made into nanoparticles, they tend to become chemically
more reactive. They are very interesting as catalysts. Even chemically inert materials like
gold or platinum are able to catalyse chemical reactions in nano-powder form.
b. Nanoparticles generally are more toxic when incorporated into the human body than
larger particles of the same materials. Free nanoparticles or nanotubes could be inhaled,
absorbed through the skin or ingested.
Inhaled particles can have two major effects on the human body. First, Their
primary toxic effect is to induce inflammation in the respiratory tract, causing tissue
damage and subsequent systemic effects. And secondly, the transport of nanoparticles
through the blood stream to other vital organs or tissues of the body may result in
cardiovascular and other extrapulmonary effects. If nanoparticles penetrate the skin they
might facilitate the production of reactive molecules that could lead to cell damage.

ENVIRONMENT
Nanomaterials can be used to assist with cleaning the environment and even
provide efficient energy solutions, such as nanomaterial based solar cells. However, there
are both positive and negative impacts on the environment due to nanotechnology.
With the help of nanotechnology, water quality can be improved. Some of the
nanomaterials that can be used for remediation of water are carbon nanotubes (CNTs),
zeolites, nanoparticles of zero valent iron (ZVI), silver nanoparticles, etc. Other
nanomaterials like zinc oxide (ZnO), titanium dioxide (TiO 2), tungsten oxide, serve as a
photocatalyst. These photocatalysts can oxidize organic pollutants into harmless materials.
TiO2 is the most preferred material as it has high photostability, high photoconductivity,
easily available, inexpensive and non-toxic. Silver nanoparticles have antimicrobial effect.
Also, many polymeric nanoparticles are being used for wastewater treatment.
Another new technology is known as nanofiltration which can be used in water
treatment in homes, offices, and industries. Molybdenum disulphide (MoS 2) nonporous
membrane is used for energy efficient desalination of water which filters five times more
than the conventional ones. To clean oil spills in the water bodies, a nanofabric paper towel
has been developed which are woven from tiny wires of potassium manganese oxide that
can absorb oil 20 times its weight. Thus, nanotechnology provides a solution to clean the
contaminated water and prevent new pollution.
With the help of nanotechnology, toxic gases in the air can be cleaned. But first, we
have to detect the pollutants at the molecular level using precise sensors. A sensor called
nanocontact sensor has been developed which can detect the heavy metal ions and
radioactive elements. These sensors have a small size, are inexpensive and are easy to use
on-site. Currently, single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) are being used for the detection of
NO2 and NH3 gases. Also, SWNTs sensor can accomplish high sensing activity at room
temperature when compared to the conventional sensors which work at 200 to 600◦C.
Cantilever sensors have been developed to sense VOCs, heavy metals and pesticides. A
mixture of CNTs with gold particles helps adsorb toxic gases like NOx, SO2 and CO2. Another
porous nanomaterial manganese oxide has better adsorption of toxic gases due to its large
surface area.
Therefore, by detecting pollutants by specific sensors, we can help protect the
sustainability of human health and the environment. Thus, nanotechnology provides us
with a new approach to cut down the waste production, reduce the emission of greenhouse
gases and discharge of hazardous chemicals in water bodies.

Nanomaterials can also have a negative impact. Currently there is very little
information describing the relative environmental risk of the manufactured nanomaterials.
Only a few studies have been conducted with the aim of discovering the direct and indirect
exposure to nanomaterials and there are no clear guidelines to quantify the effects.

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