Information Processing Theory

Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy. The
terms used in the information processing theory (IPT) extend this analogy. In
fact, those who program and design computers aim to make computers
solve problems through processes similar to that of the human mind. Read
on to know more about IPT.

Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature

of what is learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not
an external behavior change (as behaviorist theorists thought). They look
into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. They believe
that how a person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives shape what
he/she will learn. All these notions comprise what is called the information
processing theory.

IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the
environment through the senses and what takes place in between
determines whether the information will continue to pass through the
sensory register, then the short term memory and the long term memory.
Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be
retrieved or “remembered” when the learner needs it. Let us go into the
details.

We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.

“Types” of Knowledge

• General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful

in many tasks, or only in one.

 Declarative: This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the

nature of how things are. They may be in the form of a word or an
image. Examples are your name, address, a nursery rhyme, the
definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.
 Procedural: This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples
include making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least
common denominator.
 Episodic: This includes memories of life events, like your high school
graduation.
 Conditional: This is about “knowing when and why” to apply
declarative or procedural strategies.
Stages in the Information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register,
short-term memory and the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three
primary stages in the progression of external information becoming
incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept,
script, frame, mental model, etc.).

These three primary stages in IPT are:

 Encoding: Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.

 Storage: The information is stored for either a brief or extended
period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding.
 Retrieval: The information is brought back at the appropriate time
and reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective
memory.

What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be
described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along
which information is taken into the memory system, and brought back
(recalled) when needed. Most theories of information processing revolve
around the three main stages in the memory process:

Sensory Register

The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very brief
time.

 Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is

more than what our minds can hold or perceive.
 Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an
extremely brief period — in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.
 There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory
is more persistent than visual.

The Role of Attention

  To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give
attention to it. Therefore, we can only perceive and remember later
those things that pass through our attention "gate".
 Getting through this attentional filter happens when the learner is
interested in the material; when there is conscious control over
attention; or when information involves novelty, surprise, salience, and
distinctiveness.
 Before information is perceived, it is known as "precategorical"
information. This means that until that point, the learner has not
established a determination of the categorical membership of the
information. To this point, the information is coming in as
uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can
categorize, judge, interpret and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail
to perceive, we have no means by which to recognize that the stimulus
was ever encountered.

Short-Term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

Capacity: The STM can only hold 5 to 9 "chunks" of information,

sometimes described as 7 +/- 2. It is called working memory because it
is where new information is temporarily placed while it is mentally
processed. STM maintains information for a limited time, until the
learner has adequate resources to process the information, or until the
information is forgotten.

Duration: Around 18 seconds or less.

To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to do

maintenance rehearsal. It is using repetition to keep the information
active in STM, like when you repeat a phone number just given over
and over.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory

information. It holds the stored information until needed again.

Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.

Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite.

Executive Control Processes

The executive control processes involve the executive processor or what

is referred to as metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of
information through the system, help the learner make informed decisions,
and manage the cognitive resources.

Executive control processes are also about how to categorize,

organize or interpret information. Examples of processes are
attention, rehearsals and organization.

Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when

needed. There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

 Decay: Information is not attended to, and eventually 'fades'

away. Very prevalent in Working Memory.
 Interference: New or old information 'blocks' access to the
information in question.

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information

 Rehearsal: This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or

aloud.
 Meaningful Learning: This is making connections between new
information and prior knowledge.
 Organization: It is making connections among various pieces of
information. Info that is organized efficiently should be recalled.
 Elaboration: This is adding additional ideas to new information based
on what one already knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain
meaning.
 Visual Imagery: This means forming a "picture" of the information.
 Generation: Things we 'produce' are easier to remember than things
we 'hear'.
 Context: Remembering the situation helps recover information.
 Personalization: It is making the information relevant to the
individual.

Other Memory Methods

 Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy): You will remember
the beginning and end of a 'list' more readily.
 Part Learning: Break up the 'list' or "chunk" information to increase
memorization.
 Distributed Practice: Break up learning sessions, rather than
cramming all the info in at once (Massed Practice).
 Mnemonic Aids: These are memory techniques that learners may
employ to help them retain and retrieve information more effectively.
This includes the loci technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-
word and association techniques, among others.