Seshadripuram College Database Management Systems (DSC-4)

UNIT- 1

Database Architecture
Data: is a collection of facts, figures having no particular meaning. Data can be represented in
the forms of text , numbers, video, audio, image etc.

Ex: 89, a, hello

Data representation:
Data can be represented in the form of

Number

Text

Audio

Image

Video

Types of data based on collection:

Primary data: Data collected by the investigator himself/ herself for a specific purpose.

Secondary data: Data collected by someone other than the user, which is already available.

Information: It is a processed data or collection of data, which is having a meaning for a

specific purpose.

Ex: Marks: 89; first letter : a; msg: hello this becomes information.

What is Knowledge?

1. Knowledge refers to the practical use of information.

2. Knowledge necessarily involves a personal experience.

DATA/INFORMATION PROCESSING:

The process of converting the data (raw facts) into meaningful information is called
asdata/information processing.

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Data(Raw facts)-  Data Transformation  Information(useful and relevant knowledge)

(people, procedures, H/W or a S/W, paper etc)

Field, Record, File:

Field: A single piece of information.

Record: is one complete set of fields.

File: is a collection of records

Ex: File: Telephone book Record: Three fields: Name, address, PhoneNo

Database: is an organized collection of data for one or more purposes. The data are typically
organized to model relevant aspects of reality.

Database System: is a System to organize data, to store a large number of dynamically

associated data, to facilitate multi user access to computer hardware, software and data.ie,
computer system with database technology

Database Management System(DBMS):

It is a software or collection of programs that enables you to store,modify and extract

information from a database.There are many different types of DBMSs ranging from small
systems that run on personal computers to huge systems that run on main frames.

Ex: Computerized library systems

Automated teller machines

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File Systems:

Manual filing system: It is a well planned traditional submission method either by hand , type
writer (No storage devices and computers) etc

Simple data, less expensive

Traditional File System: File processing was an early attempt to computerize the manual filing
system. It is a method for storing and organizing computer files in a a storage device such as
hard disk/ CD Rom and involve maintaining the physical location of the files and the data to
make it easy to find and access it..

Characteristics

 It is a group of files storing data of an organization

 Each file is independent from one another
 Each file is called a flat file which contains processed information for one specific
function.
 Files are designed by using programming languages such as cobol, c,c++
 Physical implementation and access procedures are written into database application.

Advantages:

 Simpler to use
 Less expensive
 Fits the needs small businesses and home users
 Good for database solutions for hand held devices such as palm pilot

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Disadvantages:In the above example 3 components there are doctor, patient and ward files.
They will maintain their own files to store their information.

1. Duplication of data: Redundancy:

It means the information will be repeated one or more times.
In the above figure doctor’s details will be present not only in the doctor’s file but also in
patient and ward files. This mechanism will applied on both patient and wards files.
Hence same data will be repeated again and again.
2. Data dependence:
Due to the redundancy it will leads to the data dependence. It means one file
information is totally depends upon another file information.
In the above figure without knowing doctor’s details we can’t do anything on the patient
and ward files. The same mechanism will be applicable on both patient and ward files.
Hence data will be depends on each other.
3. Data inconsistency:
Due to the redundancy it will leads to the data inconsistency, ie data is not an
ordered one.
4. Limited data sharing:
Each application has its own private files. In this users have less opportunity to
share the Data from outside applications.
5. Lack of security:
In this approach it unable to protect data from unauthorized persons because this
approach does not have any mechanism to check the identification of the users who are
authorized to that application.
6. Lengthy development time:
It will take more time to develop several numbers of applications. It will take more
time.
7. Concurrent access anomalies:
In this approach number of users can not access the system for data at the same time.
means it does not support multiple user access at a time which in turn leads to ambiguity.8.
Poor data modeling of real world

These draw backs are overcome by using database approach.

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Database System:
The Database is a shared collection of logically related data, designed to meet the
information needs of an organization. It is computer based record keeping system whose
over all purpose is to record and maintain the information. The database is a single, large
repository of data which can be used simultaneously by many departments and users.

Implicit Properties Of Database.

 A database represents some aspect of the real world, sometimes called as miniworld or
university of Discourse.
 A database is logically coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning.
 A database is designed, built and populated for a specific purpose.

Characteristics of Database approach:

 Self describing nature of a database system: This is the fundamental characteristic

of database. A DBMS catalog stores the description of a particular database.
 Data abstraction:
The characteristic that allows program-data independence by hiding the
data and program- operation independence is called as data abstraction.
 Support of multiple views of the data:
different user may see a different view of the database, which describes
only the data interested to that user. View may be a subset of the database or it
contains virtual data.
 Sharing of data and multi-user transaction processing:
It allows a set of concurrent users to retrieve from and to update the
database.
 Insulation between programs and data:
In TFS the structures of data files is embedded in the accessing programs,
so the changes to the structure of a file may require changing all programs that access
this file.

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As shown in the above figure the DBMS is centralized system which provides a common
interface between the data and end users.

Advantages:
1. Minimum data redundancy:
In this approach we will maintain the database for storing different (unique) details
of different users. Hence data present in one file need not be duplicated in other. It will reduces
the repentance of data.
2. Data Consistency:

Reduced data redundancy leads to better data consistency.

3. Data Sharing:
Related data can be shared through DBMS. means doctor share his data with other
doctor through database.
4. Data Independence:
Here doctor details does not depends upon the patient, patient does not depends upon
the ward details and you can do changes without affecting other data.

5. Data Integrity:

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In this approach data integrity (grouping of data and relations among them) is
more compared to TFS.
6. Maintenance is easy due to centralized database system.

Disadvantages of Database System

 A complex conceptual design process

 The need for multiple external databases
 High DBMS acquisition costs
 A more complex programmer environment
 Highly dependent on DBMS operations
Difference between TFS and Database approach:
In TFS approach each user defines and implements their own files for a specific application
to run where as database approach maintains a single repository to store multiple users’ data.

Simplified Database System

The database and the DBMS software together is a Database system. It is a computer based
system to record and maintain information. It consists of the following:

Users/Programmers

Application programs/Queries

Software to process queries/ programs

Software to access stored data

DBMS catalog(Metadata)

The physical stored database

DBMS: Database Management System is a

software package with computer programs
to control the creation, maintenance and use
of database. It allows organizations to
conveniently develop databases for various

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applications by database administrators and other specialists.

A DBMS also provides facilities for controlling data access, enforcing data integrity ,managing
concurrency control, recovering the database failures and restoring it from back up files as well
as maintaining database security.

Functions of DBMS:

Data definition: provides functions to define the structure of Data in application.

Data Manipulation: provides functions to operate on data for planned and unplanned queries.
Data Security & Integrity: providing relations among data and securing data in an application
Data Recovery and concurrency: provides functions for recovery of Data from a system failure
and providing multiple access of Data for Users
Data dictionary maintenance: provides functions for data definition of application
Performance: Optimizing and controlling the performance of the queries.

Advantages of DBMS

 Reduced data redundancy

 Restricting unauthorized access
 Providing persistent storage for program objects
 Providing storage structure for efficient query processing
 Providing backup and recovery
 Providing multiple user interface
 Representing complex relationships among data
 Enforcing integrity constraints.

Disadvantages

 Cost of hardware and software

 Cost of data conversion
 Cost of staff training
 Appointing technical staff
 Database damage

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Applications of DBMS

 Effective processing complex data with set of references for expression of relations
between them.
 Building of internet shops and distributed information systems.
 Building of virtual company office and virtual kiosks.
 Storage and reproduction of graphic images video and audio.
 Creation of websites allotted to unlimited opportunities.

DBMS Users
Users may be divided into 2 types. They are
 Actors on the scene
 Workers behind the scene

1. Actors on the Scene: those who actually use and control the content of DBMS

A).DBA: The person who is responsible for controlling and coordinating the system is called
DBA.

B). Database designers: one who is responsible for identifying the data to be stored in the
database and choosing appropriate structures to represent the same.

C). System analysts and application programmers: These are software engineers who
determine the requirements of end users to decide the type of transactions and to build
applications, test and document the same.

D). End users: These are the people who actually access the database. They are categorized into

i. casual users: These types of users can have little bit knowledge about the operations.
These people occasionally access the data base. These users are also bothered about only
output but not the designing part.

ii. Naive or parametric users: These types of users cannot have the alteration ideas but
they focus to get the output of existing application to satisfy customer needs. These
people frequently access the data base.
iii. Sophisticated end users: These users interact with the system using query based
language. These people having knowledge about database design.Ex: scientists,
engineers, system Analyst etc

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iv. stand alone users: This type of users who are specialized to access personal
databases and also small applications.

2.Workers behind the scene: Those who enable the database to be developed and the DBMS
software to be designed and implemented.

A). Database system designers and implementers: one who is responsible fo complete system
design and DBMS Modules and interfaces as a software package.

B).Tool developers: one who design and implement the tools and software packages that
facilitate database system design.

C). Operators and maintenance personnel: one who is responsible for actual running and
maintenance of hardware and software of Database System.

Database Administrator [DBA]

The person who is responsible for controlling and coordinating the system is called DBA.

Roles and responsibilities of DBA

1. Selection of Hardware and Software:

 Keep up with current technological trends.
 Predict future changes.
 Establish self products.
2. Managing data Security:
 Establishment of user requirements.
 Firewalls for network security.
 Protection of data against accidental or intentional or miss use.
3. Managing Data Integrity:
 Integrity controls, protect data from unauthorized users.
 Maintains data consistency.
 Maintaining data relationship.
4. Data Back up:
 DBA must assume what type of data should be backed up more frequently.
 There are several back up facilities done by DBA they are Automatic dump,
periodic back up etc.
5. Database Recovery:
 Re installation of database after crash. Recovery includes back up, check point
these are done by recovery manager.
6. DBA is responsible for improving query processing performance and maintain
documentation standards.

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7. He is responsible for version control and technical support.

8. DBA is responsible for modifications such as inserting data, delete and update data.
9. Take care of database design and implementation.
10. Checking memory and CPU usage.

When not to use a DBMS:

 Main cost of using a DBMS, it means high initial investment in hardware, software etc.
 When a DBMS may be unnecessary, if database and applications may not be met because
of DBMS overhead.
 If the database users need special operations not supported by the DBMS.

Data Model
 Data model is a set of data structure and conceptual tools used to describe the structure of
a database.
 Data model can also be defined as an integrated collection of concepts for describing and
manipulating data, relationships between data and constraints on the data in an
organization.
Data Model comprises of three components:

1.Structural part (set of rules to construct database)

2.Manipulative part( types of operations that can be performed on database)
3. Set of Integrity rules ( to ensure data is accurate)

Classification of Data models

Data Model

High level/ representation/ Low level/

Object based record based physical model

ER model object oriented Relational Network Hierarchical

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High level or object based data model:

This model is used to describe the data. In this model we do not bother about the storage of
data.“The main aim of this model is only the relationship between the various objects”.
There are two types
1. E-R Model 2. Object Model
E-R Model: This is entity relationship model.
“It is a graphical or symbolical or pictorial notation for data base”.
The main components of this model are
 Entity.
 Relationship.
 Attribute.
Entity:
It is the real world object/concept like place, person or thing.
Entity can be classified into 2 types. They are
 Strong entity
 Weak entity
Strong entity is an entity which will not depends on the other entity. It will be represented by
Weak entity is an entity which will depends on the other entity. It will be represented by

Attribute: it represents property of interest that describes an entity, such as

name,id ,address etc.
Relationship: it represents an association among two or more entities

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Object Oriented Data Model: An object oriented data model is a logical

organization of the real world objects (entities), constraints on them and also
relationships among the objects. Object oriented model consists of classes, objects,
attributes , methods and inheritance .
Class: A blueprint which describes an entity or an existing world
Object: An instance or a copy of a class which consists of both states and
behavior.
Attribute: is used describe the state or a feature of an object.
Method: is used to describe the behavior or functions of an object.
Inheritance: it is the process of acquiring the features of parent object to create a
new object. It gives a IS-A or parent-child relationship.
Object Relational Data Model: Object relational Model is a wide spread simple
relational model database model extended by some basic object oriented concepts
like object view, object inheritance and object integration to solve data complexity
problems.

Representation/ Record Based model

There are 3 types of record based models. They are

1. Hierarchical database model

2. Network database model

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3. Relational database model

Relational database model

 This model was developed by E. F CODD in 1960’s.
 In this model all the data is represented (or) organized in the form of two-dimensional
format that is table.
 Table is a combination of unnamed rows and Named columns (or) is a collection of
records.
 Rows are also called as tuples or records.
 Columns are also called as fields or attributes.

Characteristics of Relational Database

Cols (or) fields (or) attributes

SID SNAME COURSE FEE SEM

1 Aaa Bca 1000 2nd
Body of relation
2 Bbb Bsc 2000 2nd
3 Bbb bca 1000 2nd

Terminologies:
Meta data:
It is data about data; it includes data of the data types and size etc.
Meta data stores in a file that is repository or data dictionary/Catalog.
Ex: student

Sno Sname course

1 A Bca
2 B Bsc

Meta data of above data is

Sno Sid Number/Numeric

Sname Name Char/String
Course Scourse Char/String

Domain:
A set of unique values in a particular column is referred as domain.

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Ex: in the above relation SID column is the domain rest of the columns have duplicate values.

Cardinality of Relation:
“Number of rows presented in that particular relation is referred as cardinality of
relation”.
Ex: cardinality of above relation is 3.

Degree of Relation:
“Number of columns presented in that particular relation is referred as degree of
relation”.
Ex: degree of above relation is 5.

ADVANTAGES:

 Compared to network and hierarchical models creation of relation will be easy.

 In this model changes in the structure do not affect the data access.
 It is a very powerful and flexible model for every user.

DISADVANTAGES:

 In this we hide the implementation complexity and data storage details from the users.
 Using this model we cannot implement reference concept.
 It is poorly designed database system means every user can implement the model.

Hierarchical database model

.
Root A

B C D

G H
E F

 In this model data will be represent in the form of inverted tree like structure.
 This structure allows representing information using parent-child relationship.
 Each parent can have many children. But each child has only one parent. Hence, this
relationship is called as one to many relationships

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This model is used to describe the data and maintain the logical and view level
At the top of the hierarchy, there is one entity, which is called the root.

ADVANTAGES:

 In this model DBMS provides lot of security.

 There is always link between the parent and child.
 Proper ordering of a tree result is easier and faster.

DISADVANTAGES:

 Although it is a simple to design but complex to implement.

 If you make any changes in the database structure then you must make changes in the
entire application in the DBMS.
 This model suffers from the insert, delete and update anomalies.

Network database model

 It is a flexible of representing objects and their relationships.
 In this data can be representing in the form of relationship through the pointers.
 This model allows each record have multiple parent and child records, hence this is
referred as many to many relationship.
 It is as same as the hierarchical model but need not necessary to use a downward tree like
structure to represent the data.
In the network model, the entities are organized in a graph, in which some entities can be
accessed through several paths as shown in figure below.

ADVANTAGES:

 Data must be tree like structure because of we are using the pointers.
 Data manipulation can be done easily.
 It is possible to represent many to many relationship

DISADVANTAGES:

 It is very complex to implement the pointer concept.

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 It is very difficult to make the structural changes in the database.

Physical Level / Low level Model

A Physical Data Model describes a database-specific implementation of the data model. It
offers database abstraction and helps generate the schema The physical data model also helps in
visualizing database structure by replicating database column keys, constraints, indexes, triggers,
and other RDBMS features.

Physical Data Model

Characteristics of a physical data model:

 The physical data model describes data need for a single project or application though it
maybe integrated with other physical data models based on project scope.
 Data Model contains relationships between tables that which addresses cardinality and
nullability of the relationships.
 Developed for a specific version of a DBMS, location, data storage or technology to be
used in the project.
 Columns should have exact datatypes, lengths assigned and default values.
 Primary and Foreign keys, views, indexes, access profiles, and authorizations, etc. are
defined.

Data base Schema and Instance

Schema:
Schema is a overall structure or description of a database, which does not have any
content in it.

Sno Sname Course Sem

Instance:
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The actual content of database at a particular point at a time is referred as an Instance.

Sno Sname Course Sem

1 Aaa bca 3rd
Instance
2 Bbb bsc 2nd

Database State: The data in database at a particular moment in a time is called database state.
Empty state: database defined with no data in it
Initial state: the database is first loaded with initial data
Valid state: which satisfies the structure and constraints specified in the schema

DBMS Architecture
There are 2 different ways to look at the architecture of DBMS they are
1. Logical Architecture
2. Physical Architecture.

Logical DBMS Architecture (or) 3-Schema Architecture (or) 3 level

Architecture
This architecture describes how the data transfers from database to users through the DBMS.
The aim of this architecture is separation of user application from the database.
This Architecture divided into 3 levels hence it is referred as 3 schemas. Those levels are
 Internal or physical or low level
 Conceptual or logical or middle level
 View or External or high level

All these levels are shown in the following figure.

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Internal level:

 It is the lowest level of data abstraction that deals with the physical representation
of the database on the computer and thus, is also known as physical level.
 It describes how the data is physically stored and organized on the storage medium.
 In this level users can create only empty structure of the database.

Conceptual level:

 This level of abstraction deals with the logical structure of the entire database and
thus, is also known as logical level.
 It describes what data is stored in the database, the relationships among the data and
complete view of the user’s requirements without any concern for the physical
implementation.
 That is, it hides the complexity of physical storage structures. The conceptual view is
the overall view of the database and it includes all types of operations like insertion,
deletion and modifications.

External level:

 It is the highest level of abstraction that deals with the user’s view of the database
and thus, is also known as view level.
 In general, most of the users and application programs do not require the entire data
stored in the database.
 It permits users to access data in a way that is customized according to their needs, so
that the same data can be seen by different users in different ways, at the same time.

The process of transforming the requests and results between various levels of DBMS
architecture is known as mapping.

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There are 2 ways of mapping used in 3 schema architecture. They are

 Internal mapping:

The mapping between internal and conceptual level and it gives the
correspondence between structure and stored data.

 External mapping:

The mapping between external and conceptual level and it defines the
correspondence between particular records and fields.

The main advantage of three-schema architecture is that it provides data independence.

Data independence

“It is the ability to change the schema at one level of the database system without having
to change the schema at the other levels. “

Data independence is of two types, namely,

 logical data independence
 Physical data independence.
Logical data independence:

It is the ability to change the conceptual schema without affecting the external
schemas or application programs.
Physical data independence:
It is the ability to change the internal schema without affecting the conceptual or
external schema. An internal schema may be changed due to several reasons such as for creating
additional access structure, changing the storage structure, etc.

DBMS LANGUAGES

DBMS provides mainly 3 types of languages. They are

 Data definition language (DDL)

These commands are used to define the logical schema. Users can define, alter
and also drop the table by using these commands.
o Create
o Alter
o Drop
o truncate
 Data manipulation language (DML)

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These commands are used to insert data into table, delete data from the table and
also update the content in the table.
o Insert
o Delete
o Update
o Select
 Data Control language (DCL)
These commands are used to control the database.
o Grant
o Revoke
o Commit
o rollback

Database System Environment

The database system refers to an organization of components that define and regulate the
collection, storage, management and use of data within database.

The components in database system environment are

1. Hardware: It identifies all the physical devices. It includes computer, peripheral devices ,
network devices etc.
2. Software: it makes the database system work properly. There are mainly three types are
needed
i. operating system

ii. DBMS software

iii. application software
3. Data: Data is very basic entity in a database which are nothing but collection of facts.
4. procedures: these are the instructions and rules to supervise the design and use of the
database system.
5. people : these includes actors acting on scene and also workers behind the scene.
DBA, database designers, software engineers, tool developers, end users etc

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Centralized DBMS Architecture

In this architecture the mainframes or super computers are used to provide main
processing for user application programs, user interface programs and DBMS
functionality
The user can access the systems through ‘dumb’ computer terminals that provide
display capabilities with no processing capabilities.
All processing are performed remotely on the computer system and only display
information is sent to terminals through a network.

Distributed DBMS
A distributed database is a single logical database that is spread physically across
computers in multiple locations that are connected by a communication network
An application program operating on a DDB may access data stored at more than
one machine.
A set of cooperating databases each residing at different sites is like a virtual object
each with their own DBMS.

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Advantages and Disadvantage of DDB

Functions of Distributed DBMS

 Extended communication systems
 Extended Data Dictionary
 Distributed query processing
 Extended concurrency control
 Extended recovery services
Basic Client/Server Architecture

The client/server architecture was developed to deal with computer environment in which a large
number of PCs, workstation, file server…

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 A client is the requesting machine and the server is the supplying machine. Both are
connected through network is referred as client Server Architecture.

There are 2 types of DBMS Client-Server Architecture. They are

 Two-tier client server architecture
 Three-tier client server architecture

Two-tier client server architecture

This is called two-tier architectures because the software components are distributed over two
systems: client and server
o In this establish a connection between client and server that is ODBC (open database
connectivity) once this connection is formed then the client will communicate with the
server.
o Query requests are sent from the client to the server and server processors then it sends
results to the client.

Advantages:
1. Clients are not powerful.
2. Reduces the data traffic on the network.
3. Improve data integrity.

Three-tier architecture
The emergence of the Web changed the roles of client and server, leading to the three-tier
architecture
The intermediate layer or middle layer is sometimes called the application server or Web
server Three-tier Architecture Can Enhance Security:
1. Database server only accessible via middle tier
2. Clients cannot directly access database server

Three-tier client server architecture

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The presentation layer displays information to the user

 The business logic layer handles intermediate rules and constrains before data is passed
up to the user or down to the DBMS
 If the bottom layer is split into two layers (a web server and a database server), then it is a
4-tier architecture (possible to the n-tier)

Advantages:
1. Technological flexibility.
2. Long term cost reduction.
3. Reduced risk.
4. Improve customer services.

DBMS Interfaces
Interfaces are the programs, which convert system language to user understandable
language; hence, it is as same as the translator is.
The user friendly interfaces provided by DBMS are

1. Menu-Based Interfaces:

These interfaces present the user with lists of options, called menus that lead
the user through the formulation of a request. By using these menus users form a request
through query processing.

2. Forms-Based Interfaces :

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A forms-based interface displays a form to each user. Users can fill out all of the form
entries to insert new data, or they fill out only certain entries, in which case the DBMS will
retrieve matching data for the remaining entries.

3. Graphical User Interfaces :

A graphical interface (CUI) typically displays a schema to the user in diagrammatic
form. The user can then specify a query by manipulating the diagram.

4. Interfaces for Parametric c Users :

Parametric users, such as bank tellers, often have a small set of operations that they
must perform repeatedly. Usually, a small set of abbreviated commands is included, with the goal
of minimizing the number of keystrokes required for each request.

5. Interfaces for the DBA: Most database systems contain privileged commands that can be used
only by the DBA's staff. These include commands for creating accounts, setting system
parameters, granting account authorization, changing a schema, and reorganizing the storage
structures of a database.

Classification of DBMS
DBMS can be classified into different categories on the basis of several criteria such as

1. Data models:
In this which type of data model can be used to design or define the data base.
 Relational
 Hierarchical
 Network
 Object oriented
 Object relational
2. Number of users support:
In this how many numbers of users and it supports which type of operating system
like
 Single user
 Multi user.
3. Number of sites:
Here users are used to store data in a single site or distributed site.
 Centralized
 Distributed
 Homogeneous(same DBMS software at multiple sites)
 OLTP(Online Transaction processing)
4. Cost: based on initial setup maintenance of database system
 Low end system ( under $3000)
 High end system. (over $100000)
5. Purpose: based on usage
 General purpose
 Special purpose

Department of CS (BCA) Page 26