Edexcel IGCSE Light and Sound Notes

Learning objectives:

Content that is in bold is assessed in Paper 2 only (not in Paper 1).

 Light
● Visible light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum which means it is a transverse wave.
● This means the direction the light particles vibrate is perpendicular to the direction of
the energy transfer.

Light waves are transverse: the particles vibrate in a perpendicular direction to the energy
transfer

● Light can undergo:

● Reflection
● Refraction
● All waves in the electromagnetic spectrum can be reflected and refracted.

Sound
● Sound waves are vibrations of air molecules.
● When a sound wave comes into contact with a solid those vibrations can be transferred to the
solid.
● For example, sound waves can cause a drinking glass to vibrate.
● If the glass vibrates too much the movement causes the glass to shatter.

● Sound waves are longitudinal waves.

● This means the direction the light particles vibrate is parallel to the direction of the
energy transfer.
● Hence, it consists of:
● Compressions - regions of higher density.
● Rarefactions - regions of lower density.
Sound waves are longitudinal: the particles vibrate in the same direction as the energy transfer.

● Sound can also undergo:

● Reflection
● Refraction
● The reflection of a sound wave is called an echo.

Reflection & Refraction

● All waves, whether transverse or longitudinal, can be reflected and refracted.

● Reflection occurs when: A wave hits a boundary between two media and does not pass through,
but instead stays in the original medium.

An identical image of the tree is seen in the water due to reflection

 ● Refraction occurs when:

A wave passes a boundary between two different transparent media and undergoes a change in direction
Waves can change direction when moving between materials with different densities.

The Law of Reflection

● Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to the boundary.
● The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence (i).
● The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r).
● The angles are the same, so the law of reflection can be written:

Angle of incidence (i) = Angle of reflection (r)

Angle of incidence and angle of reflection

 Ray Diagrams

Reflection Ray Diagrams

● Angles are measured between the wave direction (ray) and a line at 90 degrees to the boundary.
● The angle of the wave approaching the boundary is called the angle of incidence (i).
● The angle of the wave leaving the boundary is called the angle of reflection (r).
● The law of reflection states that these angles are the same.

Ray diagram of reflection of a wave at a mirror

● When drawing a ray diagram an arrow is used to show the direction the wave is travelling.
● An incident ray has an arrow pointing towards the boundary.
● A reflected ray has an arrow pointing away from the boundary.
● The angles of incidence and reflection are usually labelled i and r respectively and measured
from the normal.

Refraction Ray Diagrams

● Refraction occurs when light passes a boundary between two different transparent media.
● At the boundary, the rays of light undergo a change in direction.
● The direction is taken as the angle from a hypothetical line called the normal.
● This line is perpendicular to the surface of the boundaries and is usually represented by a
straight dashed or dotted line.
● The change in direction depends on the difference in density between the two media:
● From less dense to more dense (e.g air to glass), light bends towards the normal.
● From more dense to less dense (e.g. glass to air), light bends away from the normal.
● When passing along the normal (perpendicular) the light does not bend at all.
How to construct a ray diagram showing the refraction of light as it passes through a rectangular
block

● The change in direction occurs due to the change in speed when travelling in different
substances.
● When light passes into a denser substance the rays will slow down, hence they bend
towards the normal.
● The only properties that change during refraction are speed and wavelength – the frequency of
waves does not change.
● Different frequencies account for different colours of light (red has a low frequency,
whilst blue has a high frequency).
● When light refracts, it does not change colour (think of a pencil in a glass of water),
therefore, the frequency does not change.

Worked Example
Two parallel rays of light entering and passing through prism A and prism C.
Draw a third parallel ray entering and passing through prism B.
Step 1: Draw a parallel ray on the left.

Step 2: Draw the refracted ray at the first surface.

● As the ray enters the block it bends towards the normal since it is going into a denser
material.
● In this case, the angle of refraction is smaller than the angle of incidence.

Step 3: Draw the refracted ray at the second surface.

● As the ray leaves the block it bends away from the normal.
● In this case, the angle of refraction is larger than the angle of incidence.
 Exam Tip
When drawing ray diagrams for reflection:

1. A simple straight line with an arrow is enough to represent the wave.

● You do not need to draw the wavefronts unless asked to do so!
2. Take care to draw the angle correctly.
● If it is slightly out it won’t be a problem, but if there is an obvious difference between the
angle of incidence and the angle of reflection then you will probably lose a mark!

Practice drawing refraction diagrams as much as you can! It's very important to remember which way the
light bends when it crosses a boundary:
As the light enters the block it bends towards the normal line
Remember: Enters Towards
When it leaves the block it bends away from the normal line
Remember: Leaves Away
Don't forget to draw the arrows for the direction of the light rays and make sure they are drawn with a
ruler and a sharp pointed pencil.

Core Practical 4: Investigating Refraction

Aim of the Experiment

● To investigate the refraction of light using rectangular blocks, semi-circular blocks and triangular
prisms.
Variables
● Independent variable = shape of the block.
● Dependent variable = direction of refraction.
● Control variables:
● Width of the light beam
● Same frequency / wavelength of the light
● Equipment List
Resolution of measuring equipment:

● Protractor = 1°
● Ruler = 1 mm

Method

Apparatus to investigate refraction

1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the rectangular perspex
block using a pencil.
2. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block.
3. Mark on the paper:
● A point on the ray close to the ray box.
● The point where the ray enters the block.
● The point where the ray exits the block.
● A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the block.

1. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block where the points are.
2. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines.
3. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a ray striking the block at a
different angle.
4. Repeat the procedure for each shape of perspex block (prism and semi-circular).
 Analysis of Results

● Compare the different refraction patterns for each block.

Summary of the refraction patterns seen in different shaped blocks

● i and r are always measured from the normal.

● For light rays entering perspex block, the light ray refracts towards the central line:

i>r

● For light rays exiting the perspex block, the light ray refracts away from the central line:

i<r

● When the angle of incidence is 90° to the perspex block, the light ray does not refract, it
passes straight through the block:

i=r
 ● If the experiment was carried out correctly, the angles should follow the pattern, as shown below:

How to measure the angle of incidence and angle of refraction

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:

● An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly.

● Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines.

Random Errors:

● The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked.
● Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam.
● The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately.
● Use a protractor with a higher resolution.

Safety Considerations

● The ray box light could cause burns if touched.

● Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute.
● Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes.
● Avoid looking directly at the light.
● Stand behind the ray box during the experiment.
● Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper.

Snell's Law (Refractive Index)

● When light enters a denser medium (such as glass) it slows down and bends towards the
normal
● How much the light bends depends on the density of the material.
 Angle of incidence i and angle of refraction r through a glass block

● If light travels from a less dense to a more dense medium (e.g. air to glass), r < i (bends
towards the normal)
● If light travels from a more dense to a less dense medium (e.g. glass to air), r > i (bends away
from the normal)
● The angles of incidence and refraction are related by an equation known as Snell's Law:

● Where:
● n = the refractive index of the material
● i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
● r = angle of refraction of the light (°)
● 'Sin' is the trigonometric function 'sine' which is on a scientific calculator.
● This equation can be rearranged with the help of the formula triangle:

Snell's law formula triangle

 ● The refractive index is a number which is related to the speed of light in the material (which
is always less than the speed of light in a vacuum):

● The refractive index is a number that is always larger than 1 and is different for different
materials.
● Objects which are more optically dense have a higher refractive index, eg. n is about 2.4
for diamond.
● Objects which are less optically dense have a lower refractive index, eg. n is about 1.5 for
glass.
● Since refractive index is a ratio, it has no units.

Worked Example
A ray of light enters a glass block of refractive index 1.53 making an angle of 15° with the
normal before entering the block.Calculate the angle it makes with the normal after it
enters the glass block.

Step 1: List the known quantities.

● Refractive index of glass, n = 1.53

● Angle of incidence, i = 15°

Step 2: Write the equation for Snell's Law.

Step 3: Rearrange the equation and calculate sin (r).

Step 4: Find the angle of refraction (r) by using the inverse sin function.

r = sin^–1 (0.1692) = 9.7 = 10°

Exam Tip
Important: (sin i / sin r) is not the same as (i / r). Incorrectly cancelling the sin terms is a very common
mistake! When calculating the value of i or r start by calculating the value of sin i or sin r. You can
then use the inverse sin function (sin^–1 on most calculators by pressing 'shift' then 'sine') to find
the angle. One way to remember which way around i and r are in the fraction is remembering that 'i'
comes before 'r' in the alphabet, and therefore is on the top of the fraction (whilst r is on the bottom).

Core Practical 5: Investigating Snell's Law

Aim of the Experiment

● To investigate the refractive index of glass, using a glass block.

Variables
● Independent variable = angle of incidence, i
● Dependent variable = angle of refraction , r
● Control variables:
● Use of the same perspex block
● Width of the light beam
● Same frequency / wavelength of the light

Equipment List

● Resolution of measuring equipment:

● Protractor = 1°
● Ruler = 1 mm
Method

Apparatus set-up to investigate Snell's Law (Refractive index)

1. Place the glass block on a sheet of paper, and carefully draw around the block using a pencil.
2. Draw a dashed line normal (at right angles) to the outline of the block.
3. Use a protractor to measure the angles of incidence to be studied and mark these lines on the
paper.
4. Switch on the ray box and direct a beam of light at the side face of the block at the first angle
to be investigated.
5. Mark on the paper:
● A point on the ray close to the ray box.
● The point where the ray enters the block.
● The point where the ray exits the block.
● A point on the exit light ray which is a distance of about 5 cm away from the block.
6. Remove the block and join the points marked with three straight lines.
7. Replace the block within its outline and repeat the above process for a rays striking the block at
the next angle.
● An example table of results might look like this:
Analysis of Results
● If the angles have been measured correctly, the paper should end up looking like this:

● The angles of incidence and refraction are related by Snell's Law:

● Where:
● n = refractive index of the material
● i = angle of incidence of the light (°)
● r = angle of refraction of the light (°)
● Plot a graph of sin i on the y-axis against sin r on the x-axis.
● The refractive index is equal to the gradient of the graph.
● An example graph might look like this:
Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:

● An error could occur if the 90° lines are drawn incorrectly.

● Use a set square to draw perpendicular lines.
● The points for the incoming and reflected beam may be inaccurately marked.
● Use a sharpened pencil and mark in the middle of the beam.
● The protractor resolution may make it difficult to read the angles accurately.
● Use a protractor with a higher resolution.

Safety Considerations

● The ray box light could cause burns if touched.

● Run burns under cold running water for at least five minute
● Looking directly into the light may damage the eyes.
● Avoid looking directly at the light
● Stand behind the ray box during the experiment
● Keep all liquids away from the electrical equipment and paper.

Total Internal Reflection

● Sometimes, when light is moving from a denser medium towards a less dense one, instead of
being refracted, all of the light is reflected.
● This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
● Total internal reflection (TIR) occurs when:

The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle and the incident material is denser than
the second material.

● Therefore, the two conditions for total internal reflection are:

● The angle of incidence > the critical angle
● The incident material is denser than the second material

Critical angle and total internal reflection

● Total internal reflection is utilised/used in:
● Optical fibres eg. endoscopes
● Prisms eg. periscopes

Optical Fibres
● Total internal reflection is used to reflect light along optical fibres, meaning they can be
used for
● Communications
● Endoscopes
● Decorative lamps
● Safety reflectors on bicycles, cars and roads

● Light travelling down an optical fibre is totally internally reflected each time it hits the edge of
the fibre.

Optical fibres utilise total internal reflection for communications

● Optical fibres are also used in medicine in order to see within the human body.
 Endoscopes utilise total internal reflection to see inside a patient's body

Prisms
● Prisms are used in a variety of optical instruments, including:
● Periscopes
● Binoculars
● Telescopes
● Cameras
● A periscope is a device that can be used to see over tall objects.
● It consists of two right-angled prisms.

Reflection of light through a periscope

 ● The light totally internally reflects in both prisms.

Single and double reflection through right-angled prisms

Exam Tip
If asked to name the phenomena make sure you give the whole name – total internal reflection.
Remember: total internal reflection occurs when going from a denser material to less dense material
and ALL of the light is reflected. If asked to give an example of a use of total internal reflection, first
state the name of the object that causes the reflection (e.g. a right-angled prism) and then name the
device in which it is used (e.g. a periscope).

Critical Angle
● As the angle of incidence is increased, the angle of refraction also increases until it gets closer to
90°.
● When the angle of refraction is exactly 90° the light is refracted along the boundary.
● At this point, the angle of incidence is known as the critical angle c.

As the angle of incidence increases it will eventually surplus the critical angle and lead to total
internal reflection of the light.
 ● When the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, the refracted ray is now reflected
● This is total internal reflection.

Worked Example
A glass cube is held in contact with a liquid and a light ray is directed at a vertical face of the
cube.The angle of incidence at the vertical face is 39° and the angle of refraction is 25° as shown
in the diagram.The light ray is totally internally reflected for the first time at X.

Complete the diagram to show the path of the ray beyond X to the air and
calculate the critical angle for the glass-liquid boundary.

Step 1: Draw the reflected angle at the glass-liquid boundary.

● When a light ray is reflected, the angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

● Therefore, the angle of incidence (or reflection) is 90° – 25° = 65°
Step 2: Draw the refracted angle at the glass-air boundary.

● At the glass-air boundary, the light ray refracts away from the normal
● Due to the reflection, the light rays are symmetrical to the other side

Step 3: Calculate the critical angle.

● The question states the ray is “totally internally reflected for the first time” meaning that
this is the lowest angle at which TIR occurs.
● Therefore, 65° is the critical angle.

Exam Tip
If you are asked to explain what is meant by the critical angle in an exam, you can be sure to gain full
marks by drawing and labelling the same diagram above (showing the three semi-circular blocks).

Calculating Critical Angle

● The critical angle, c, of a material is related to its refractive index, n.
● The relationship between the two quantities is given by the equation:

● This can also be rearranged to calculate the refractive index, n:

● This equation shows that:

● The larger the refractive index of a material, the smaller the critical angle.
● Light rays inside a material with a high refractive index are more likely to be totally
internally reflected.

Worked Example
Opals and diamonds are transparent stones used in jewellery. Jewellers shape the stones so that
light is reflected inside.Compare the critical angles of opal and diamond and explain which stone
would appear to sparkle more.

The refractive index of opal is about 1.5

The refractive index of diamond is about 2.4

Step 1: List the known quantities.

 ● Refractive index of opal, no = 1.5
● Refractive index of diamond, nd = 2.4

Step 2: Write out the equation relating critical angle and refractive index.

Step 3: Calculate the critical angle of opal (co).

sin(co) = 1 / 1.5 = 0.6667

co = sin^–1 (0.6667) = 41.8 = 42°

Step 4: Calculate the critical angle of diamond (cd).

sin(cd) = 1 / 2.4 = 0.4167

cd = sin^–1 (0.4167) = 24.6 = 25°

Step 5: Compare the two values and write a conclusion.

● Total internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence of light is larger than
the critical angle (i>c).
● In opal, total internal reflection will occur for angles of incidence between 42° and 90°.
● The critical angle of diamond is lower than the critical angle of opal (co>cd).
● This means light rays will be totally internally reflected in diamond over a larger range of
angles (25° to 90°).
● Therefore, more total internal reflection will occur in diamond hence it will appear to
sparkle more than the opal.

Exam Tip
When calculating the value of the critical angle using the above equation:

● First use the refractive index, n, to find sin(c)

● Then use the inverse sin function (sin–1) to find the value of c.
Sound (Paper 2 only)
Core Practical 6: Investigating the Speed of Sound (Paper 2 only)

Equipment List

● Resolution of measuring equipment:

● Trundle wheel = 0.01 m
● Tape measure = 0.1 cm
● Stopwatch = 0.01 s

Experiment 1: Measuring the Speed of Sound Between Two Points

● The aim of this experiment is to measure the speed of sound in air between two points.

Variables

● Independent variable = Distance

● Dependent variable = Time
● Control variables:
● Same location to carry out the experiment
Method

Measuring the speed of sound directly between two points

1. Use the trundle wheel to measure a distance of 100 m between two people.
2. One of the people should have two wooden blocks, which they will bang together above their
head to generate sound waves.
3. The second person should have a stopwatch which they start when they see the first
person banging the blocks together and stop when they hear the sound.
4. This should be repeated several times and an average taken for the time travelled by the sound
waves.
5. Repeat this experiment for various distances, e.g. 120 m, 140 m, 160 m, 180 m.
● A possible results table might look like this:
Analysis of Results
● The speed of sound can be calculated using the equation:

● The speed of sound in air should work out to be about 340 m/s.

Experiment 2: Measuring the Speed of Sound with Oscilloscopes

● The aim of this experiment is to measure the speed of sound in air between two points using an
oscilloscope.

Variables

● Independent variable = Distance

● Dependent variable = Time
● Control variables:
● Same location to carry out the experiment
● Same set of microphones for each trial

Method

Measuring the speed of sound using an oscilloscope

1. Connect two microphones to an oscilloscope.

2. Place them about 2 m apart using a tape measure to measure the distance between them.
 3. Set up the oscilloscope so that it triggers when the first microphone detects a sound, and adjust
the time base so that the sound arriving at both microphones can be seen on the screen.
4. Make a large clap using the two wooden blocks next to the first microphone.
5. Use the oscilloscope to determine the time at which the clap reaches each microphone and
the time difference between them.
6. Repeat this experiment for several distances, e.g. 2 m, 2.5 m, 3 m, 3.5 m
● A possible results table might look like this:

Analysis of Results
● The speed of sound can be calculated using the equation:

● The speed of sound in air should work out to be about 340 m/s.

Evaluating the Experiments

Systematic Errors:

● In Experiment 2, ensure the scale of the time base is accounted for correctly.
● The scale is likely to be small (e.g. milliseconds) so ensure this is taken into account
when calculating speed.

Random errors:

● A main cause of error in Experiment 1 is the measurement of time.

● Ensure to take repeat readings when timing intervals and calculate an average to keep
this error to a minimum.
 ● Maximise the distance between the two people where possible. This will reduce the
error in measurements of time because the time taken by the sound waves to travel will
be greater.

Exam Tip
When you are answering questions about methods to measure waves, the question could ask you to
comment on the accuracy of the measurements. In the case of measuring the speed of sound:

● Experiment 2 is the most accurate because the timing is done automatically.

● Experiment 1 is the least accurate because the time interval is very short.

Whilst this may not be too important when giving a method, you should be able to explain why each
method is accurate or inaccurate and suggest ways of making them better (use bigger distances).

● For example, if a manual stopwatch is being used there could be variation in the time
measured which can be up to 0.2 seconds due to a person's reaction time.
● The time interval could be as little as 0.3 seconds for sound travelling in air.
● This means that the variation due to the stopwatch readings has a big influence on the results
and they may not be reliable.

Sound & Oscilloscopes (Paper 2 only)

● An oscilloscope is a device that can be used to study a rapidly changing signal, such as:
● A sound wave
● An alternating current

Oscilloscopes have lots of dials and buttons, but their main purpose is to display and measure
changing signals like sound waves and alternating current
 ● When a microphone is connected to an oscilloscope, the (longitudinal) sound wave is displayed
as though it were a transverse wave on the screen.
● The time base (like the 'x-axis') is used to measure the time period of the wave.

A sound wave is displayed as though it were a transverse wave on the screen of the oscilloscope.
The time base can be used to measure a full time period of the wave cycle.

● The height of the wave (measured from the centre of the screen) is related to the amplitude of
the sound.
● The number of entire waves that appear on the screen is related to the frequency of the wave.
● If the frequency of the sound wave increases, more waves are displayed on screen.
 Core Practical 7: Using an Oscilloscope (Paper 2 only)

Aim of the Experiment

● The aim of this experiment is to investigate the frequency of a sound wave using an
oscilloscope.

Variables

● Independent variable = Tuning forks of different frequencies

● Dependent variable = Time period

Equipment List

Method

Measuring the frequency of a sound wave using an oscilloscope

 1. Connect the microphone to the oscilloscope as shown in the image above.
2. Test the microphone displays a signal by humming.
3. Adjust the time base of the oscilloscope until the signal fits on the screen - ensure that multiple
complete waves can be seen.
4. Strike the tuning fork on the edge of a hard surface to generate sound waves of a pure
frequency.
5. Hold the tuning fork near to the microphone and observe the sound wave on the oscilloscope
screen.
6. Freeze the image on the oscilloscope screen, or take a picture of it.
7. Measure and record the time period of the wave signal on the screen by counting the number
of divisions for one complete wave cycle.
8. Repeat steps 4-6 for a variety of tuning forks.
● A possible results table might look like this:

Analysis of Results
● To convert the time period of the wave from the number of divisions into seconds, use the
scale of the time base. For example:
● The time base is usually measured in units of ms/cm (milliseconds per centimetre).
● This would mean a wave with a time base of 4 cm has a time period of 4 ms.
● To calculate the frequency of the sound waves produced by the tuning forks, use the equation:

Where:
f = Frequency, measured in hertz (Hz)
T = Time period, measured in seconds (s)
Evaluating the Experiment
Systematic Errors:

● Ensure the scale of the time base is accounted for correctly.

● The scale is likely to be small (e.g. milliseconds) so ensure this is taken into account
when calculating the time period.

Random Errors:

● A cause of random error in this experiment is noise in the environment, so ensure it is carried out
in a quiet location.

Pitch

● The pitch of a sound is related to the frequency of the vibrating source of sound waves.
● If the frequency of vibration is high, the sound wave has a high pitch.
● If the frequency of vibration is low, the sound wave has a low pitch.

The pitch of the sound is related to the frequency of the sound waves

This image shows two sound waves displayed on an oscilloscope. The red wave has smaller
wavelength than the blue wave hence it has higher frequency and higher pitch.
 Loudness
● The loudness of a sound is related to the amplitude of the vibrating source of sound waves.
● If the sound is loud, the sound wave has a large amplitude.

This image shows two sound waves displayed on an oscilloscope. The blue wave has twice the
amplitude of the green wave because the blue wave is louder.

Range of Human Hearing (Paper 2 only)

● The human ear responds to the vibrations caused by sound waves.
● The frequency range for human hearing is 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.

The range of human hearing is between 20 – 20 000 Hz.

Below 20 Hz is known as infrasound. Above 20 000 Hz is known as ultrasound.