Lecture – 01 & 02

Ethics are moral principles that guide individuals and

organizations in distinguishing right from wrong and making
decisions that benefit society. In IT, ethics involve responsible
use of technology. For example, developers must protect users'
privacy by ensuring sensitive data is encrypted and not
misused, as mishandling could lead to serious privacy
violations.

Morality refers to the principles or standards of right and

wrong that guide human behavior. In IT, morality can be seen in
ethical programming practices. For example, a software
engineer choosing not to include spyware or unethical tracking
in their app, even if it benefits the company financially,
demonstrates moral responsibility in technology development.

Ethical Theories in IT:

1. Subjective Relativism
Definition: Subjective relativism posits that moral judgments
are purely personal opinions and that there is no absolute truth
in ethics. Everyone determines what is right or wrong based on
personal feelings, and one person's view is just as valid as
another's.
Example:
A software developer might choose to ignore bugs in a program
that only cause minor inconvenience to users, believing that
since these bugs don’t affect them personally, fixing them isn’t
necessary. This personal decision to overlook the bugs is based
on their own judgment rather than a company-wide or industry-
standard policy.

2. Cultural Relativism
Definition: Cultural relativism argues that what is right or wrong
depends on cultural norms and values. Each culture has its own
moral code, and it is inappropriate to judge one culture’s ethics
using the standards of another.
Example:
In some countries, the use of pirated software is culturally
accepted because of economic factors or lack of enforcement.
An IT professional from a different country might find this
unethical but must recognize that in the local context, it’s
considered normal.

3. Ethical Egoism
Definition: Ethical egoism suggests that individuals should act
in their own self-interest. The theory states that actions are
morally right if they benefit the individual making the decision,
even if they negatively impact others.
Example:
A cybersecurity expert may decide not to report a vulnerability
they discovered in a system so they can exploit it later for
personal financial gain. This decision benefits them but could
harm users of the system. The expert's actions are driven by
their self-interest, disregarding the potential risks to others.

4. Divine Command Theory

Definition: Divine command theory holds that morality is
determined by the commands of a divine being (God). Actions
are considered morally right if they align with these divine
instructions, and wrong if they do not.
Example:
A developer working for a company that creates software for
online gambling may refuse to contribute to the project,
believing that gambling is morally wrong based on their
religious views. Their ethical decision is guided by divine
commands, even if it conflicts with the company's goals.

Applications of Ethical Egoism in IT

Decision-Making
1. Product Development
Prioritization
 Purpose: When deciding what products or features to
develop, an IT professional or company may focus on projects
that maximize profit or benefit to themselves, rather than
those that address social needs.
 Example: A software company might prioritize developing a
premium feature for corporate clients because it’s more
 profitable, even though creating an open-source or
community version could benefit the larger developer
community.

2. Data Privacy Decisions

 Purpose: Ethical egoism can be applied when deciding how
much to invest in data privacy and protection measures. A
company may focus on its own risk of liability and potential
loss of revenue rather than fully safeguarding user data for the
users' benefit.
 Example: A tech company may choose to implement just the
minimum legal data privacy measures to avoid fines, rather
than fully optimizing for user privacy, which would cost more.

3. Security Patches and Updates

 Purpose: IT professionals might decide to prioritize fixing
bugs or security issues that could damage their reputation or
business prospects over issues that affect fewer users.
 Example: A company may quickly patch security
vulnerabilities that affect its largest and most profitable clients
but delay fixes for issues that affect only a small subset of users
or systems.

Ethical Egoism in IT: Justifiability

Short-Term Benefits:
o Improved Decision-Making: Focuses on individual
benefits, e.g., a software developer prioritizing their own
 productivity and job satisfaction by working on projects of
personal interest.
o Increased Motivation: Personal gain drives performance;
e.g., a project manager pushing for faster delivery to receive
a performance bonus.

Long-Term Benefits:
o Enhanced Career Growth: Personal interests align with
career development, e.g., a developer building a portfolio of
innovative projects that lead to advanced job opportunities.
o Sustained Innovation: Personal investment drives
continuous improvement, e.g., a tech entrepreneur investing
in new technologies that lead to groundbreaking
advancements.

Importance of Ethics in IT Projects

 Trust and Credibility: Ethical practices help build trust with
clients, stakeholders, and users.
 Data Privacy: Protecting sensitive data ensures compliance
with laws like GDPR, preventing data breaches.
 Avoiding Exploitation: Fair labor practices and transparency
prevent unethical exploitation in IT projects.
 Social Responsibility: Ethical IT solutions can positively
impact society and protect vulnerable groups.

Code of Ethics for IT Professionals

 Integrity: IT professionals must uphold honesty and adhere
to moral principles in all activities.
 Confidentiality: Protect sensitive information and respect the
privacy of users and organizations.
 Competence: Maintain professional knowledge and skills to
perform duties effectively.
 Accountability: Take responsibility for actions and outcomes
in IT projects.
 Fairness: Treat all individuals and stakeholders impartially
without bias.
 Respect for Property: Protect intellectual property and avoid
illegal software use.

Workable Ethical Theories:

 Utilitarianism: This theory suggests that the best
action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or well-being.
Example: A government decides to build a new park because it
will benefit the majority of citizens, even if a few people have to
relocate.

 Act Utilitarianism: This version focuses on the

consequences of individual actions to determine right from
wrong.
Example: A person chooses to donate to a local charity instead
of a big organization because it will have a more immediate
positive impact on their community.
 Rule Utilitarianism: This approach evaluates
the rules that lead to the greatest good for the most people,
rather than individual actions.
Example: Following a rule that prohibits stealing, as it generally
leads to more happiness and safety in society.

 Social Contract Theory: This theory posits

that moral and political obligations are based on an agreement
among individuals to form a society.
Example: Citizens agree to follow laws in exchange for
protection and services from the government.

 Virtue Ethics: This theory emphasizes the

character and virtues of individuals rather than rules or
consequences.
Example: A person acts kindly and generously because they
value compassion as a virtue.

 Deontology: This ethical theory focuses on

following rules and duties regardless of the consequences.
Example: A doctor refuses to lie to a patient about their
diagnosis, believing it is their duty to be honest.

 Kantianism: Based on philosopher Immanuel Kant,

this theory emphasizes acting according to moral laws that
everyone can agree upon, treating people as ends in
themselves.
Example: A company pays fair wages to all employees,
respecting their dignity and rights as individuals.
Thomas Hobbes & Social Contract
Thomas Hobbes' social contract theory posits that individuals
consent to surrender some freedoms to a sovereign authority in
exchange for security and order. This agreement creates a
stable society. For example, citizens agree to obey laws, and,
in return, the government provides protection and public
services. This mutual exchange aims to prevent chaos and
ensure societal functioning.

John Locke's social contract theory argues

that individuals consent to form a government to protect their
natural rights—life, liberty, and property. The key idea is that
government's legitimacy stems from this consent. For example,
in a company, employees agree to follow policies (social
contract) in exchange for job security and fair treatment.

Applications of Social Contract

Theory in IT and Society
 Privacy: Social contract theory supports the idea that
users agree to share their data in exchange for services.
Example: Facebook's privacy policies align with user consent on
data usage.

 Security: Users expect IT systems to protect their

information as part of the social contract. Example: Banks
implement strong encryption to safeguard financial data.
 Ethical AI: Developers should ensure AI behaves
ethically and respects societal norms. Example: Google's AI
principles guide responsible AI development.

CASE STUDY Example

Students in a history class are asked to take a quiz
posted on the course Web site. The instructor has
explained the following rules to the students: First,
they are supposed to do their own work. Second, they
are free to consult their lecture notes and the textbook
while taking the quiz. Third, in order to get credit for
the quiz, they must correctly answer at least 80
percent of the questions. If they do not get a score of
80 percent, they may retake the quiz as many times
as they wish.
Mary and John are both taking the quiz. They are
sitting next to each other in the computer room. John
asks Mary for help in answering one of the questions.
He says, “What’s the difference if you tell me the
answer, I look it up in the book, or I find out from the
computer that my answer is wrong and retake the
quiz? In any case, I’ll end up getting credit for the
right answer.” Mary tells John the correct answer to
the question.

1. Utilitarianism
 Analysis: The focus here is on maximizing overall
happiness. If Mary helps John, he may pass the quiz,
which could lead to his happiness and relieve his
stress. However, this could undermine the purpose
of the quiz, potentially leading to a lower overall
understanding of the material in the class and a
devaluation of academic integrity.
 Conclusion: Mary’s choice to help John may
provide temporary happiness for him, but it could
harm the collective learning environment,
suggesting it is not a utilitarian action.
2. Act Utilitarianism
 Analysis: Act utilitarianism looks at the specific act
of Mary helping John. While it might help John
succeed in the quiz, it could lead to a situation
where other students also feel entitled to help each
other, potentially diminishing the quiz's integrity
and educational value.
 Conclusion: The short-term benefit to John does
not outweigh the potential long-term negative
 consequences for the class as a whole. Thus, Mary’s
action is not justifiable.
3. Rule Utilitarianism
 Analysis: This theory evaluates the action based on
established rules that promote the greatest good.
The rule against cheating is designed to ensure
fairness and promote individual learning. If
everyone followed this rule, it would lead to a
better learning environment for all students.
 Conclusion: By helping John, Mary violates the rule
that encourages independent work, which
ultimately undermines the educational system,
making her action unfavorable from a rule
utilitarian perspective.
4. Social Contract Theory
 Analysis: Social contract theory suggests that
students have an implicit agreement to follow the
rules set by the instructor for a fair learning
experience. Mary’s act of helping John breaks this
social contract by allowing unfair advantage and
eroding trust among students.
 Conclusion: Mary’s decision to assist John
undermines the social contract, as it compromises
the fairness and integrity of the quiz, making her
action unethical.
5. Virtue Ethics
  Analysis: Virtue ethics emphasizes the character
and virtues of individuals. A virtuous student would
value honesty, integrity, and a commitment to
learning. By helping John, Mary may show
kindness, but it contradicts the virtue of honesty and
respect for the educational process.
 Conclusion: From a virtue ethics perspective, Mary
should act in a way that reflects virtues such as
integrity and responsibility, which her action does
not align with.
6. Deontology
 Analysis: Deontological ethics focuses on
adherence to rules and duties. Mary has a duty to
follow the instructor’s rule of doing her own work
and not assisting others. Helping John would be a
violation of this duty.
 Conclusion: From a deontological standpoint,
Mary’s action is unethical because it disregards the
duty to follow the rules laid out by the instructor.
7. Kantianism
 Analysis: Kantian ethics emphasizes acting
according to maxims that can be universally
applied. If everyone were to help each other during
the quiz, it would undermine the purpose of
assessments, leading to a breakdown of academic
standards.
  Conclusion: Mary’s action fails the Kantian test
because if everyone behaved similarly, it would
result in a lack of genuine understanding and a
devaluation of the educational system.
Overall Conclusion
In all ethical frameworks examined, Mary’s decision to
help John is deemed unethical, as it undermines the
principles of fairness, integrity, and individual
responsibility that are essential in an educational
environment.