DOJOHUB NILEORBITAL

AEROSPACE

FINAL SPRINT ONE REPORT

REMOTE SENSING TECHNOLOGY USAGE IN

AGRICULTURE.

BY: SSEKAAYI HASSAN

NAMANDA JANE
LUKWAGO JOHN CALVIN
KASORO FENEHASI
KATUMBA MUGERWA ALEX
KAJJUMBA HELLEN
Supervisor: Mr. Alvin Michael Mulumba
Supervisor: Mr. David Tusubira

A final sprint one research report submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the internship training on Remote sensing tech-
nology application in the Agriculture space.

January 2025
Contents
List of Figures ii

List of Tables iii

List of Acronyms iv

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Earth-Observation Satellite Companies in the Space Ecosystem . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Satellite service companies that offer raw EO services 5

2.0.1 Raw EO Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Costs and qualities of various service providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.1 Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Satellite imagery service providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Service Providers that offer Refined Earth Observation services . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.1 Commercial service providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.2 Free providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Satellite Data Processing Equipment Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Technologies required for developing refined insights from the Earth Observation
and Internet of Things data for agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Expertise required for processing satellite data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.7 Advantages of owning a satellite over other existing services . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.8 African Countries Benefiting from Satellite Ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.8.1 Key Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.9 Resolution Required To Cover The Entire Target Market . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.10 Remote sensing sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.11 Sensors Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.12 Insights from African Case Studies in Satellite EO Applications . . . . . . . . . 31
2.13 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3 REFERENCES 35

i
List of Figures
1 Infrastructure monitoring satellite image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Defense1 and security application of satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3 Crop monitoring satellite application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4 Forest and vegatation monitoring satellite application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
5 Pesticide and Fertilizer spraying using a drone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6 Remote sensing Area mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
7 Data collection Using a Remote sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
8 Earth observation satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
9 MODIS sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
10 Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
11 OLI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
12 Major general components of a UAV, DJI Matrice M600 Pro. The aerial platform
carries the payload, which in this case, is a non-integrated RGB camera. . . . . 28
13 Soil Moisture water sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
14 Irrigation planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
15 Defforestation patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
16 satellite-detected water stress area in south Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

ii
List of Tables
1 The table below summarizes options for free and paid satellite imagery services,
including resolution, cost, and use cases. This comparison helps identify the
most suitable data sources based on specific needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Different types of sensors and their uses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3 Specifications of five common UAVs for agricultural applications [1] . . . . . . . 29

iii
List of Acronyms
Acronym Meaning
ESA European Space Agency
RGB Red Green Blue
NIR Near Infrared
IR Infrared
SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar
NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
CDNs Content delivery networks
UAVs Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar
EUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation
of Meteorological Satellites
LEO Low Earth Orbit
MEO Medium Earth Orbit
GEO Geostationary or Geosynchronous Orbit
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion
GPS Global Positioning System
EO Earth-Observation
SGS Satellite Ground Stations
GIS Geographic information Systems

iv
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Remote sensing technology has transformed agriculture by enabling precise monitoring and
management of farming activities. This study examines the use of satellite, aerial, and drone
sensors to capture high-resolution data for applications such as crop monitoring, soil analysis,
irrigation, and pest control. Advanced techniques like multispectral imaging, thermal sensing,
and machine learning are explored for their effectiveness in optimizing resource use, improving
crop health, and enhancing sustainability. Highlighting case studies, the research emphasizes
remote sensing’s role in addressing global food security challenges and its potential to revolu-
tionize agricultural practices.
Earth Observation is a scientific practice that involves systematically monitoring and studying
the Earth’s surface and atmosphere from a distance using various remote sensing technologies.
These include satellite imaging, aerial photography, ground-based observation stations, and
remote sensing via unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The primary goal of Earth Observation is
to collect data on the Earth’s physical, chemical, and biological attributes to better understand
its dynamic systems and the effects of these changes on human society and the environment.

1.2 Satellite
A satellite is a self-contained communications system that is able to receive and retransmit
signals from and to Earth with the help of a transponder – an integrated receiver and transmitter
of radio signals [2].
Satellites can operate in three different orbits: low Earth orbit (LEO), medium Earth orbit
(MEO) and finally geostationary or geosynchronous orbit (GEO). [3] It only takes three GEO
satellites to provide worldwide coverage, while it takes twenty or more to do the same from
LEO, as they operate at a much lower altitude than the first ones.
To secure a smooth and successful connection between satellites MEO and LEO, having track-
ing antennas on the ground is essential. Low Earth orbit accounts for many communications,
remote sensing, and Earth-imaging satellites. MEO hosts communications satellite constella-
tions and the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS), which provides global positioning
and navigation capabilities (otherwise known as GPS). Geostationary orbit (GEO) is valid for
military insights, agriculture, satellite radio, and communications. GEO satellites have the
most extensive coverage through this position: 42 percent of Earth’s surface. They can collect
reliable Earth data quicker than other instruments on the ground.
Satellites can help researchers to better understand the solar system and the universe beyond,
and they can provide communication services such as telecommunications, broadcasting, and
other data communications. Telecommunications include essentially telephone calls and services
delivered to wireless, mobile, and cellular network providers. Broadcasting services include
radio, television, and mobile broadcasting services.
Lastly, data communications comprise the transfer of data from one point to another. This
exchange of data between various locations can be used to provide powerful insights regarding
possible disasters and emergencies, weather forecasting or to numerous important sectors of
our daily lives such as national security, agriculture, banking, commerce, oil and gas, mining,
energy production or tourism.
Besides being classified according to their purpose, satellites can also be distinguished according

1
to their size and weight. Conventional satellites comprise all satellites weighing more than 500
kilograms (large and medium), while small satellites weigh less than 500 kilograms. Within the
small satellites sub-segment, Nanosatellites are the most popular ones and comprise any satellite
weighing between 1 to 10 kilograms. The satellite size also dictates other characteristics. Small
satellites are more accessible to companies of all sizes as they have more affordable prices,
and they have shorter development times which make them more flexible, but they also have
some disadvantages. Small satellites have shorter operational lifetime and limited amount of
hardware they can carry while conventional satellites have longer manufacturing and developing
times, longer operational lifetime and they are able to carry considerable hardware.
Having this said, it is important to highlight that the satellites and its characteristics and ap-
plications to other businesses were not always like this. Governments, researchers, scientists,
engineers and more recently private companies and other important space stakeholders have
invested a huge amount of effort during almost the past century to reach where we are nowa-
days. Major technological breakthroughs, important collaborations between governments and
private investors and the emergence of new business segments were all major milestones that
contributed to the advances in the satellite industry, either on the process of manufacturing a
satellite or the way to collect data from Earth to its applications on our daily decision-making
process.

1.3 History
One is not able to analyze New Space EO companies’ business model without going through
the major milestones of satellites and Space history over the last century. Satellites have been
playing a significant role in the Space Economy since the beginning of the space race. The
Cold War between the United States and the USSR was a major milestone that ended up
setting the beginning of this race as there were many far-reaching achievements in science,
space exploration, and technology.
In October 1957 the USSR successfully launched Sputnik 1, the first Earth-orbiting artificial
satellite in history. Sputnik 1 provided valuable insights and discoveries to scientists regarding
the method of placing a satellite into Earth Orbit; the atmosphere density by calculating its
lifetime in orbit and the radio and optical methods of orbital tracking. The satellite had around
84 kg and 58cm diameter and orbited the planet for two months before it fell back into the
atmosphere [4].
Following this event and intensified cold war tensions between the two nations, the USA estab-
lished in 1958 the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), an independent
agency of the U.S federal government that was responsible to lead the space exploration efforts.
(NASA, ”NASA History: The First Decade,” NASA Historical Publications, Washington, DC,
2019.)
In the same year, the USA launched Explorer 1, the first satellite of the long-running Explorer
Program from NASA. Explorer 1 had around 14kg, so around six times lighter than the one
launched by the USSR, had 15.2 cm diameter and orbited the planet for almost four complete
months (the double of the one launched by the USSR).
Finally, in 1969, Neil Armstrong became the first man to walk on the Moon, and for several
historians, this event symbolized the end of the space race between both nations and the United
States’ victory. In just a couple of decades, the space race contributed to major scientific
and engineering breakthroughs in specific countries and specific space exploration segments.
However, there were not significant collaborations and knowledge-sharing between nations as

2
military research and governments’ secrecy and competition forced the sector to preserve their
own technological advancements.
During the following years the space environment started to shift but at a slow pace. The Space
economy as well as the satellite industry were still dominated by governments, space agencies
and military facilities and only a few large private companies and contractors were in the race.
Furthermore, in the 1980s only a small number of governments had the capacity to build and
launch a satellite as it was very time and money consuming.
At first, the U.S with NASA and Russia dominated the panorama but foreign public players
like China, India, Israel, United Arab Emirates and Brussels started also to claim a stake in
the Space economy. China was the world’s third nation to launch a satellite in 1970 and to put
its first astronaut in space in 2003. Only around the 2000s’ and thanks to a steady reduction
of costs regarding space hardware and launch costs, important entrepreneurs in the internet
economy such as Elon Musk and Jeff Bezos started investing in this business field.
In addition to these private investors other new players across the world started to join the race
for space economy seeking new sources of economic growth and innovation. They include the
sovereign wealth funds of Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia, high-tech investors such as Masayoshi
Son’s Softbank, and central American venture capital funds such as Founders Fund, Sequoia
Capital, Draper Fisher Jurvetson, First Round Capital and Bessemer.
The coexistence between public and private entities turned out to be relevant for the industry
as both players pursue very different goals and respond to distinct needs. When it comes to
public companies, as mentioned before, the main reasons to invest were related with national
pride and direct military investment, while private companies have been entering the industry
to make space more commercial and affordable for all citizens. To this greater private sector
involvement and the shift to a space industry driven essentially by commercial opportunities
one calls it the NewSpace concept.
According to the report “The future of the European space sector” from the European Com-
mission, NewSpace was already the major contributor to the global space economy growth
of 6.7 on average per year between 2005-2017. NewSpace reflects precisely a more global,
entrepreneurial, and affordable Space industry. European Commission, ”The Future of the
European Space Sector,” Brussels: European Commission, 2019.
Governments have been outsourcing some of their space non-core activities and they have been
seeking and encouraging the commercial use of Space. This mega-trend gave room for private
investment to grow from around US2.5billionperyearin2015and2016toapproximatelyU S 7.6
billion in 2020, according to Bryce Tech’s Start-Up Space 2021 report [5].
SpaceX, the American aerospace company founded by Elon Musk, was the biggest receiver of
those investments and successfully launched 31 Falcon 9 carrier rockets during 2021, from which
29 were reused rockets. Another important milestone happened around 2008 when Space X
launches Falcon 1, the first rocket launched by the private sector. Falcon 1 took around seven
years to be developed and launched successfully to space.
Finally, when it comes to Earth-Observation through satellites, the sector is moving from a few
large and costly EO satellites to constellations of various smaller and cheaper satellites in Low
Earth orbit. Throughout the past few years, technology improvements and lower costs of 19
manufacturing and deploying a satellite aligned with better quality and more technical features
have been driving the growth of the industries’ revenues and relevance.

3
1.4 Earth-Observation Satellite Companies in the Space Ecosystem
Space comprises the full range of activities and the use of resources that create value and
benefits to human beings while exploring, researching, understanding, managing, and utilizing
space (OECD, 2014). According to the European Commission and European Investment Bank
study “The future of the European space sector” 2019 the space can be divided into two major
sectors [6]:
1. Upstream
2. Downstream
The upstream includes all the activities that lead to the development of space infrastructure:
design, manufacture, assembly, launch, maintenance, monitoring and repair of space crafts,
research development activities, and all ground systems.While the downstream sector comprises
all commercial activities based on the use of data provided by space infrastructure, such as
Broadcasting, Communication, Navigation, and Earth-Observation (EO). The satellite industry
is present in both upstream and downstream levels and the closer the company is to the end
user, the further downstream it is.
By 2016, from US329 billion in terms of global space economy turnover, more than three quar-
ters was referred to commercial space activities. Around US77.22 billion (23.45were captured by
the upstream segment and around US176.66 billion (53.34) by the downstream segment. The
remaining 23.21 refers to government spending essentially related with defense and national
security matters. This report focuses on the NewSpace EO companies within the satellite in-
dustry which can be defined in general terms as companies that collect, analyze and present
data about the Earth using satellites.
Typically, EO satellite companies are included in the downstream segment as they provide
insights directly to other businesses or governments and as mentioned before, the closer the
company is to the end user, the further downstream it is in the market.
However,as it will be analyzed in more detail, vertical integrated companies are emerging in
the EO market, meaning that nowadays they not only provide insights to end users, but some
of them also manufacture the satellite that is going to be used to collect the inputs. In this
case, EO Satellite emerging companies are present in both downstream and upstream space
segments.
Considering this, within the EO satellite segment, one can distinguish companies that buy
satellites ready to use and companies that design and develop their satellites in-house. However,
both types rely on launch companies to put their satellites into orbit. Furthermore, in terms of
supply chain, to collect insights from a satellite in space, one can distinguish three major steps:
• Design and Manufacture the satellite: The first step in the process is to design and
manufacture the satellite. Some companies in the EO Satellite Industry rely on special-
ized suppliers to build their satellites, while others build and operate their own smallsats.
In both cases, satellite companies rely on external suppliers to provide them with compo-
nents, equipment, or the satellite itself. Until some years ago, manufacturers were mainly
focused on the U.S. However, to keep up with the industry’s growth existing suppliers
expanded their businesses to other geographic locations such as Europe, Japan, South
Korea, Turkey, or Israel. Moreover, new players have emerged making it an extremely
competitive market.
• Test and launch the satellite:The second step is to test and launch and vice-versa until

4
 the satellite is able to fulfill its purpose successfully. Companies test some of the technical
capabilities in land to verify its readiness to launch, while the remaining capabilities can
only be tested when launching or already in space. To launch their satellites to space
and into the desired orbit, EO companies resort to space launch services to hitch a ride
on a rocket. Usually, large satellites pay the bulk of the launch and for this reason they
are considered to be a priority for most of the launch companies while small commercial
satellites line up to get a “seat” on the Space Shuttle. Besides 21 priority to large satellites,
launch companies usually have agreements with governments and national agencies such
as NASA or ESA to facilitate the agencies’ development of the space economy. As seen
before, space exploration is not just reserved for public space agencies anymore, however,
there is still a big investment portion that comes from the public sector which allows
governments to have more control over the rockets’ payloads. Therefore, private, and
small satellite companies need to adapt and adjust their timings to rideshare the rocket
with bigger players in the market.
• Collect, compile analyze satellite data and imagery: Finally, the last step would be
to collect, compile and analyze the satellite data to be able to provide to other businesses
useful insights. When the satellite is launched from the carrier rocket it is thrown to the
desired orbit or location in space. Satellites are then able to gather scientific data and
transmit it back to Earth for ground teams to process. This is when the Satellite Ground
Stations (SGS) and its services enter the process. They play a key role in collecting and
streaming remote sensing satellite data to a variety of users and applications. Companies
can either have their own Ground Stations or they can rent what they need on the ground
– both command and control links that pilot the satellite device and the data links that
connect it with its users. This last option is usually the chosen-one for startups and small
companies since it allows them to begin cheaply with a “pay-as-you-go” consumption
model. The ground segment has also suffered major changes in the last decades as tra-
ditional GEO satellites just required a single ground station while nowadays, NewSpace
LEO and MEO satellite constellations move across the sky requiring multiple ground
stations throughout the world.
Additionally, but not directly involved in the above-mentioned process of getting the satellite
into the right orbit are the researchers and academia in general which plays a significant role
as 22 initiators of most of the sector’s innovations and disruptive concepts. They contribute
somewhat to all stages of the process. Considering this, one can say that the EO Satellite
Segment is a key part of the complex Space environment. As the pursue for New Space grows
and intensifies so does the search for observational data on Earth making it a segment with
significant reach and wide societal and economic impacts not just for nations but also for a
variety of businesses across different industries.

2 Satellite service companies that offer raw EO services

Earth Observation (“EO”) is the gathering of information about the physical, chemical, and
biological systems of the planet Earth through sensors.

2.0.1 Raw EO Services

These provide unprocessed or minimally processed data collected by Earth observation satellites
or sensors.

5
Characteristics:
• Data is typically in its original format or with only basic preprocessing (e.g.calibration or
geometric corrections).
• Requires specialized knowledge and tools to interpret and extract useful information.
Examples: Satellite imagery, spectral bands, or raw radiometric data.
Use Cases: Often used by experts, researchers, or organizations with the capacity to process
and analyze the data themselves. E.g.Raw multispectral imagery from Sentinel-2 or Landsat
satellites.
Several companies provide raw Earth Observation (EO) imagery services, offering high-resolution
satellite data for various applications. And these include: Maxar Technologies: Offers high-
resolution satellite optical imagery with a 30cm resolution providing true-color images but can
be affected by cloud cover and lighting conditions. It has a global coverage and the satellite
data collected is frequently updated. Their raw imagery is mainly used for urban mapping and
infrastructure. The satellite data collected is accessible via cloud platforms such as the google
earth engine, Amazon Web Services, IBM cloud among others. The company maintains an
extensive archive for historical analysis.

Figure 1: Infrastructure monitoring satellite image

Airbus Intelligence: It offers both optical and radar imagery with 50cm resolution. Oper-
ates a comprehensive constellation of optical and radar Earth observation satellites, delivering
precise and accurate imagery. Its reliable in low light or cloudy conditions. Their raw imagery
services can be used in defense and security for surveillance and monitoring to track activities
in remote areas, disaster response and in agriculture and forestry for crop monitoring to assess
crop health, estimate yields and monitor seasonal changes

6
 Figure 2: Defense1 and security application of satellites

Planet Labs: Specializes in high-resolution Earth imaging and offers a moderate resolution
of 3-5 meters with a daily global coverage. It operates a large fleet of satellites to capture
daily images of the entire planet. Its raw image services are used mainly in agriculture and
environmental monitoring. It uses a subscription-based model.

Figure 3: Crop monitoring satellite application

Satellogic: Provides high-resolution multispectral and hyperspectral satellite imagery, cap-

tures data across various wavelengths, enabling detailed analysis of vegetation, minerals, and
other materials and offers cost effective solutions for a wide range of industries. It offers spatial
resolution of up to 70cm and has a global coverage. It also enables daily visitso the same
location, ensuring timely and upup-to-date images. Its raw imagery services find application in
agriculture, forestry, infrastructure monitoring, urban planning, disaster response and environ-
mental monitoring. The satellite data collected is accessible via Satellogic dedicated platforms
or APIs. The company combines high resolution imagery with affordability making it attrac-
tive for businesses with tight budgets and dedicated satellite constellations for clients who end
exclusive access to geospatial data.

7
 Figure 4: Forest and vegatation monitoring satellite application

Capella Space: Offers high-resolution synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery with a res-
olution as high as 50cm, capable of capturing data through clouds and at night, penetrating
through clouds and operates in all weather conditions, offering reliable data regardless of at-
mospheric conditions.
Satellite data is collected on demand tasking capabilities with rapid response times and it can
be accessed via Capella’s console allowing easy integration into geospatial tools. Their raw
imagery services find application in defense security, maritime monitoring, disaster response,
infrastructure monitoring and urban planning. Some advantages of SAR imagery can penetrate
clouds and capture data in all lighting conditions, making it highly reliable, also quick tasking
capabilities allow rapid data acquisition for time sensitive applications. These companies supply
raw EO imagery suitable for applications such as environmental monitoring, urban planning,
agriculture, and disaster response. Additionally, platforms like SkyWatch provide access to
satellite imagery from various providers, facilitating easier integration of EO data into appli-
cations. When selecting a provider, consider factors such as spatial and temporal resolution,
spectral bands available, data access methods, and licensing terms to ensure alignment with
your specific project requirements.

2.1 Costs and qualities of various service providers

Some of the quality factors include:

2.1.1 Resolution
• High Resolution: Imagery with spatial resolutions finer than 1 meter, such as 30 cm,
provides detailed views suitable for urban planning and infrastructure monitoring.
• Medium Resolution: Resolutions between 1 to 5 meters are often used in agriculture and
environmental monitoring.
• Low Resolution: Resolutions above 5 meters are typically used for large-scale environ-
mental and climate studies.

Cost Factors
Pricing Models:

8
 • Pay-as-You-Go: Purchase imagery on demand without long-term commitments. Prices
can vary based on area size and resolution.
• Subscription-Based: Access a range of data for a fixed recurring fee, often including
additional analytics features.
• Customized Pricing: Tailored solutions based on specific client requirements, which may
include dedicated satellite tasking or exclusive data access.
• Data Processing and Analysis: Some providers offer value-added services, which can incur
additional fees.
• Licensing and Usage Rights: Costs may vary depending on whether the imagery is for
commercial use, research, or personal projects.

2.2 Satellite imagery service providers

These are companies that own and operate satellite constellations, directly collecting raw satel-
lite data. They have their own high-resolution imaging satellites and offer data to end-users or
downstream providers. And examples include:
1. Maxar Technologies (DigitalGlobe): High-resolution optical imagery (e.g., WorldView,
GeoEye satellites).
2. Airbus Defence and Space: Optical and radar imagery (e.g., Pléiades, SPOT, TerraSAR).
3. Planet Labs: Daily global coverage using a large fleet of small satellites (Dove, SkySat).
4. ICEYE: Specializes in Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) for all-weather, night-time imag-
ing.
5. Capella Space: SAR-focused imaging with high-resolution capabilities.
Maxar Technologies Offers high-resolution optical imagery with spatial resolutions up to 30
cm, providing detailed views suitable for urban planning and infrastructure monitoring and
pricing varies by area and resolution.
Planet Labs Provides moderate-resolution imagery (3-5 meters) with daily global coverage,
making it useful for agriculture and environmental monitoring. They offer subscription-based
models.
Airbus Intelligence Supplies both optical and radar imagery with resolutions up to 50 cm,
reliable even in low-light or cloudy conditions. They cater to broad applications with customized
pricing based on user needs.
Satellogic Specializes in high-resolution multispectral and hyperspectral imagery with resolu-
tions up to 70 cm. They offer near-daily revisits and flexible pricing, including subscriptions
and customized models.
Capella Space Focuses on synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imagery with resolutions as high
as 50 cm, capable of capturing data in all weather conditions. They provide on-demand tasking
capabilities with pay-per-use and subscription models.

Considerations undertaken
• Project Requirements: Define the spatial resolution, update frequency, and data type
necessary for your application.

9
 • Budget Constraints: Assess the cost-effectiveness of different pricing models in relation
to your project’s needs.
• Data Accessibility and Integration:Ensure the provider’s data delivery methods align with
your technical capabilities and workflow.
By carefully evaluating these factors, you can select a satellite imagery service provider that
best fits your quality requirements and budget constraints.

2.3 Service Providers that offer Refined Earth Observation services

Refined Earth Observation services: These provide processed, analyzed, and ready-to-use in-
formation derived from raw Earth Observation data.
Characteristics:
• Data is refined into actionable insights, often tailored to specific applications.
• Includes advanced processing techniques like classification, feature extraction, and mod-
eling.
• Often presented in user-friendly formats like maps, dashboards, or reports.
Examples: Land use/land cover maps, vegetation health indices, or weather forecasts.
Use Cases: Suitable for end-users (e.g.governments, businesses, NGOs) who require insights
but lack the resources or expertise to process raw data. E.g. Crop health monitoring reports
or flood risk maps based on satellite imagery.
Several service providers offer refined Earth Observation (EO) services tailored to applications
such as weather indexing, drought monitoring, weather forecasting, and crop monitoring. And
these include both commercial and free service providers.

2.3.1 Commercial service providers

Planet Labs: Services Offered include Crop health monitoring, drought monitoring, land-
use mapping, and disaster response. They deliver high resolution daily imagery using Dove
and SkySat satellite technology and PlanetScope platform. Their services are mainly used by
agribusinesses, environmental agencies and insurance providers and have a global geographical
reach.
IBM The Weather Company: This company offers services such as weather forecasting
which includes hyper-local and global forecasts, weather indexing for insurance, crop health
monitoring which includes weather impact analysis on agriculture. Their services are mainly
used by farmers, insurance companies and supply chain managers. It offers a global coverage
with hyper local accuracy [7].
Airbus Defence and Space: Services Offered are Crop monitoring (precision agriculture
insights) drought monitoring (water resource management), disaster management (flood and
wildfire monitoring). It uses SPOT and Pléiades satellite constellations, OneAtlas analytics
platform to deliver its services. Target Users include Farmers, disaster response agencies,
governments offering a global geographical reach [8].
SatSure

10
 • Services Offered: Weather indexing for insurance, crop yield prediction, water scarcity
mapping.
• Key Technology: AI/ML models integrating satellite and ground data.
• Target Users: Agriculture, banking, insurance, and government sectors.
• Geographical Reach: Asia, Africa, and expanding globally. [9]
Tomorrow.io: This offers services of Weather forecasting, weather indexing for industries,
climate impact analytics. It uses Proprietary radar-equipped satellite network, AI-powered
insights to deliver its services. Target Users are Agriculture, logistics, insurance, energy sectors.
Offers a global geographical reach. [10]

2.3.2 Free providers

1. NASA Earth data Provides near real-time data for drought monitoring and vegetation
health mapping. They use satellite missions such as SMAP and MODIS technology
to deliver their services. The target users include researchers, governments and NGOs
and their services are global, offering satellite imagery to identify areas of drought over
time [11].
2. Copernicus Program The European Union’s Earth observation program offers services
including land monitoring, marine environment monitoring, and atmosphere monitoring,
which are essential for applications such as weather forecasting and crop health moni-
toring, land cover mapping, and vegetation indices. It uses Sentinel satellites such as
Sentinel-2 for agriculture and Sentinel-3 for weather and Copernicus climate data store to
deliver their satellite data. Governments, research institutions, businesses in agriculture,
urban planning, disaster management and climate adaption are the main beneficiaries
from their services. It also has a global coverage with a focus on Europe [12].
3. MeteosatOperated by EUMETSAT, (European Organisation for the Exploitation of
Meteorological Satellites) these satellites provide vital data for weather forecasting and
climate monitoring. These providers utilize satellite data and advanced analytical tools to
deliver actionable insights for various applications, including weather indexing, drought
monitoring via Meteosat satellites, weather forecasting, and crop monitoring. They de-
liver their services using Meteosat and MetOp satellites and also ocean and climate mon-
itoring platforms. Their services are mainly used by Meteorological agencies, environ-
mental organizations, researchers. Their services are global with emphasis on Europe and
Africa [13].
4. USGS Earth Explorer: The services offered include: Free satellite imagery for drought
monitoring, land use analysis, and vegetation health. Services are delivered using Landsat
data and other public satellite datasets. Its services are mainly used by Researchers,
students, environmental agencies. Offers a global geographical reach [14].
5. SERVIR (USAID/NASA Initiative): Services Offered include Drought monitoring,
crop analysis, disaster management, water resource monitoring. Key Technology used to
deliver services include NASA satellite data combined with regional tools and analytics
and services are mainly used by Governments, NGOs, and local agencies in developing
countries. Offers a geographical Reach but mainly focuses on Africa, Asia, and Latin
America [15].

11
 6. IBM The Weather Company: This company offers services such as weather forecast-
ing which includes hyper-local and global forecasts, weather indexing for insurance, crop
health monitoring which includes weather impact analysis on agriculture. Their services
are mainly used by farmers, insurance companies and supply chain managers. It offers a
global coverage with hyper local accuracy.

2.4 Satellite Data Processing Equipment Requirements

Data Reception Equipment/Ground Station Infrastructure: This serves as the first
point of contact with satellites. The antenna systems track and receive signals from passing
satellites, while signal processing hardware converts these signals into digital data streams.
These stations require specialized equipment including:
• Radio frequency (RF) systems/Primary Antenna Systems
These consist of:
i) Satellite/parabolic dishes (typically 3-15 meters in diameter) with precise tracking
mechanisms to maintain contact with satellites as they pass overhead. These systems
need specialized receivers that can handle multiple frequency bands (usually X-band and
S-band) since different satellites transmit on different frequencies.
ii) Feed horns and waveguides
iii) Tracking motors and control system
iv) Low-noise amplifiers (LNAs) [16]
• Signal processing equipment:
This transforms the raw RF signals into digital data streams. This includes components
like:
i) Software-defined radio (SDR) receivers
ii) Signal demodulators that convert the satellite transmission into usable data packets.
iii) Bit synchronizers
iv) Frame synchronizers [17]
Raw Data Processing Infrastructure: This handles the intensive computational tasks
required to convert raw satellite data into usable information.Once the raw data is received,
you need robust processing capabilities.
The core components include:
1. High-Performance Computing (HPC) systems These are essential for processing the mas-
sive amounts of satellite data. These systems typically need powerful processors such
as:
i) Multiple CPU clusters(minimum 32 cores per node) and GPU arrays (NVIDIA Tesla
or equivalent) to handle tasks like image reconstruction, atmospheric correction, and
geometric correction. For context, a single day of satellite imagery can generate terabytes
of data requiring significant computing power to process.
ii) High-speed interconnects (InfiniBand or equivalent)

12
 iii) RAM (minimum 256GB per node) [18]
2. Storage Systems These must be able to handle both the incoming raw data and processed
results. This usually involves a tiered storage architecture with:
Primary Storage:
• NVMe SSDs (minimum 10TB) for active processing
• Access speed: ¿3GB/s read/write
Secondary Storage:
• Large capacity enterprise HDDs (minimum 100TB) for medium-term storage
• RAID configuration for redundancy
Archival Storage:
• LTO-9 tape drives or equivalent for historical data preservation
• Automated tape libraries [19]
The network infrastructure must support high-speed data transfer between different compo-
nents of the system. This typically requires:
• 10+ Gigabit Ethernet connections for internal networks
• High-bandwidth internet connections for data distribution
• Redundant connections to ensure service reliability
Processing Software Infrastructure: This provides the tools and platforms needed to ana-
lyze and derive insights from the satellite data. This includes both commercial software suites
and custom-developed algorithms.
Base System Software
• Operating System: Enterprise Linux Distributions
• Containerization: Docker, Kubernetes
• Workflow Management: Apache Airflow [20]
Specialized Processing Software/Image Processing Suites:
• ERDAS IMAGINE
• ENVI
• eCognition
Custom Processing Algorithms:
• Python with NumPy, SciPy
• CUDA for GPU processing [21]
Quality Control Equipment: This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the processed data
through regular calibration and validation against ground-truth measurements.
Calibration Systems: These maintain the accuracy of your processing systems.
• Radiometric calibration tools

13
 • Geometric reference targets
• Spectral calibration equipment [22]
Validation Equipment
• Ground truth collection devices
• Field spectrometers
• GPS/GNSS receivers [23]
Data Distribution Infrastructure This delivers the processed data and derived products to
end users through secure, high-speed networks and web services.
Network Equipment
• Enterprise routers (Cisco or equivalent)
• Load balancers
• Firewalls
• 10+ Gbps network interfaces [24]
Web Services Infrastructure These handle multiple concurrent users and provide secure access
to data products.
• Application servers
• Database servers
• Content delivery networks (CDNs) help distribute large data files efficiently to users in
different geographic locations. This is particularly important for customers who need
real-time or near-real-time access to satellite data products.
• API gateway services [25]
However with all this in picture, equipment specifications and requirements may vary based
on specific use cases and scale of operations. Regular updates to both hardware and software
components are recommended to maintain optimal performance.

2.5 Technologies required for developing refined insights from the

Earth Observation and Internet of Things data for agriculture
1. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) / drones According to Jeongeun kim , Seungwon
kim , Chanyoung ju , and Hyoung il son , (Senior Member, IEEE July 30, 2019, UAVs
equipped with advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence, big data, and the
Internet of Things, are being used for tasks like pesticide and fertilizer spraying, seed
sowing, crop growth assessment and mapping. [26].

14
 Figure 5: Pesticide and Fertilizer spraying using a drone

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for pesticide application has gained trac-
tion across various crops, delivering promising results in East Asian countries like Japan,
South Korea, and China. UAV-based agrochemical application technology is emerging as
a high-efficiency alternative to traditional manual spraying methods and a cost-effective
option compared to conventional unmanned aerial application. However, the adoption
rate of this technology and the development of optimally designed sprayers tailored for
small-scale farms remain in the early stages in both China and Japan.

2. Remote sensing technology This is the observation of the earth’ surface from a dis-
tance through use of satellites. Monitoring agriculture the traditional way can be tough
since Agricultural areas are often very large, so checking on them regularly is difficult.
In addition, predicting crop yields depends on tracking how crops grow, but traditional
methods do not provide enough information. In some regions, like in parts of Africa and
the Middle East, political problems make it hard to access some areas, making Remote
Sensing a helpful tool to gather agricultural data [27].
However, remote sensing technology used to identify and estimate crop areas helps map
out the areas where crops are grown, which is important for understanding the scale of
agriculture, monitoring crop health by providing regular updates on how crops are grow-
ing, which is crucial when traditional methods cannot keep up and also Predicting Crop
Yields by helping to estimate how much of a crop will be harvested, which is important
for planning and avoiding food shortages.
Remote sensing can be a cost-effective solution, providing useful information without
needing a lot of resources. It can help improve food security by offering a better under-
standing of agriculture and helping farmers and governments make informed decisions
since it’s a valuable tool for improving food production and ensuring food security in a
given region. Utilities various sensors and technologies, such as hyper spectral and multi
spectral imaging to gather detailed information about crops and the environment

15
 Figure 6: Remote sensing Area mapping

3. Internet of things Technologies According to Vippon Preet Kour ([email protected])

and Sakshi Arora ([email protected]) July 24, 2020.The transformative role of Internet
of Things (IoT) in agriculture, has enabled a shift from traditional to advanced meth-
ods through technologies like cloud computing, big data analytics, and wireless sensor
networks. IoT enhances resource optimization, real-time monitoring, and predictive ca-
pabilities, while fostering global collaboration and innovation in smart farming. Flexible
and scalable systems are driving the integration of diverse devices, supported by public
and private initiatives for precision agriculture.
IoT Operating Systems (IoT OS) are designed to address the constraints of IoT devices,
such as limited memory, power, and processing, ensuring efficient data transfer and op-
eration. Their selection is based on factors like scalability, reliability, and cost-efficiency,
especially in agriculture, where diverse environments require robust systems. IoT features,
including resource management, interoperability, and energy efficiency, with notable ex-
amples being Contiki and TinyOS. These systems are critical for managing IoT devices,
with future research focusing on addressing challenges like heterogeneous deployments
and enhancing interoperability. IoT Operating System is essential for reliable and effi-
cient IoT device operations, particularly in agriculture.

Sensors collect data from the field, and based on these readings, automated actions like
activating irrigation or fogging systems are triggered. The system includes sensor nodes
capable of sending data to the cloud and an Android application for real-time access
to agricultural parameters. This approach aims to optimize resource usage, improve
efficiency, and support the precision farming practices according to Manishkumar Dholu
and Mrs. K. A. Ghodinde in the year 2018

16
 Figure 7: Data collection Using a Remote sensor

4. Cloud computing Cloud computing simplifies access to IT services by abstracting their

complexities, allowing users to utilize these services without needing to understand or
engage with the technical details behind their provision. The term ”cloud computing”
reflects this abstraction, as users perceive the services as being delivered by an anonymous
”cloud,” without knowing the actual providers. One of its key advantages is the flexibil-
ity it offers, enabling users to access services anytime and anywhere. Additionally, cloud
computing significantly reduces the costs associated with these services, minimizes the
need for manpower, and eliminates concerns like purchasing and maintaining software [28].

cloud computing as a solution, emphasizing its ability to provide services such as real-time
computation, data access, and storage without requiring users to understand the physical
setup.

The future growth of agriculture depends how the new technologies such as cloud comput-
ing are adopted with a focus on farmer needs. The use of appropriate technologies should
help a farmer in terms of accessibility and affordability. Cloud computing in agriculture
provides an enabling environment for innovation and services with a flexible regulatory
environment. Cloud-based platforms can integrate data from various sources, including
earth observation, IOT and other relevant databases, enabling comprehensive analysis.

5. Geographic information Systems (GIS)

GIS software, tools for visualizing, analysing, and managing geospatial data allowing for
the integration of earth observation imagery, IOT sensor data and other geographic infor-
mation. Geospatial Analysis, techniques for analysing spatial patterns and relationships
in data, such as identifying areas of high yield potential or areas at risk of drought.

In China, GIS began to be used in agriculture in the mid-1980s, with applications includ-
ing land and resource decision-making, grain distribution management, crop yield estima-
tion, and regional agricultural planning. The integration of GIS with modern technologies
such as GPS has enabled advanced precision agricultural systems. GIS has significantly
contributed to agricultural productivity, resource management, and economic benefits by
improving planning, monitoring, and decision-making processes.

17
 GIS serves as a tool for agricultural resource surveys by creating geographic databases,
enabling spatial database browsing, retrieval, and mapping, as well as generating regular
reports. secondly it acts as a tool for agricultural resource analysis, facilitating advanced
tasks like data reprocessing, thematic map generation, and overlay analysis to extract
new insights. Thirdly, GIS is utilized for agricultural production management by estab-
lishing models and decision-making programs that directly enhance production efficiency.
Lastly, as an auxiliary decision-making tool, GIS integrates with technologies like Remote
Sensing (RS), Global Positioning Systems (GPS), expert systems, and decision support
systems to enable dynamic spatial analysis, predictive modeling, and informed decision-
making for agricultural management. These applications demonstrate GIS’s critical role
in optimizing agricultural practices and resource management.

2.6 Expertise required for processing satellite data

• Advancements in remote sensing, including significant improvements in spaceborne and
airborne sensor systems and the deployment of Earth observation satellites, starting with
the Bhaskara series, in geostationary and polar orbits [29]. The use of passive and active
sensors in the microwave and optical spectral regions provides valuable data for atmo-
spheric, land, and ocean studies at various spatial resolutions which is the importance
of satellite observations for monitoring human- and natural-induced hazards, along with
their role in environmental protection, sustainable development, and disaster mitigation.
India’s leadership in operating the world’s largest constellation of remote sensing satellites
with their application in resource management and national planning.

• Data processing and analysis in satellite data involve several critical techniques to ensure
accuracy and usability. Preprocessing is essential and includes methods like radiometric
correction to adjust sensor errors, atmospheric correction to mitigate the effects of atmo-
spheric interference, and noise reduction to improve data quality [30]. Image processing
skills are crucial for tasks such as compositing and mosaicking, which combine multiple
images for seamless analysis, feature extraction to identify specific elements within the
data, and multi-temporal analysis to study changes over time. Additionally, expertise
in handling big data is vital for managing and processing large datasets from modern
satellite systems like MODIS, Sentinel, and Landsat, which are integral for various appli-
cations such as environmental monitoring and resource management.

• Programming and automation in satellite data processing require proficiency in program-

ming languages like Python and MATLAB to automate workflows and perform advanced
data manipulation. Expertise in geospatial libraries and tools such as Rasterio, and
OpenCV is essential for efficient data handling and analysis [31]. Additionally, knowledge
of machine learning and AI techniques, including supervised and unsupervised classifica-
tion, deep learning models, and AI-driven applications, is crucial for tasks like pattern
recognition, prediction, and enhancing data interpretation.

18
2.7 Advantages of owning a satellite over other existing services

Figure 8: Earth observation satellite

An Earth Observation (EO) satellite is a spacecraft equipped with advanced sensors and in-
struments designed to monitor and collect data about Earth’s physical, chemical, and biological
systems. These satellites capture imagery and data from space to provide insights into land use,
agriculture, forestry, climate change, disaster management, urban planning, and environmental
monitoring. They operate using various technologies, including optical, radar, and multispec-
tral imaging, allowing for detailed analysis of Earth’s surface and atmosphere. EO satellites
can provide real-time or near-real-time data, making them critical tools for research, policy-
making, and commercial applications. Unlike satellites used for communication or navigation,
EO satellites focus on observing and analyzing the planet, offering a wide range of applications
that contribute to sustainable development and disaster resilience. Owning an EO satellite will
yield to a number of benefits as explained bellow
1. Having our own Earth Observation (EO) satellite equipped with high-resolution imaging
capabilities offers numerous advantages. High resolution enables the collection of clearer
and more detailed data, which is critical for delivering accurate and actionable insights.
Clear images not only improve data quality but also enhance the user experience, making
our services more appealing to customers. Research by executive editor Bhanu Rekha
highlights that advancements in resolution have been one of the key drivers of rapid growth
in satellite technology, particularly in Earth Observation. To outpace existing satellite
providers, we aim to launch a satellite that offers superior resolution compared to the
competition in our target market. A higher resolution will set us apart, positioning Dojo
as a global leader in Earth Observation services. It will enhance our brand’s reputation
and distinguish us internationally for delivering cutting-edge imagery. Additionally, better
resolution will be instrumental in marketing our services, as clear and detailed imagery
resonates more with customers. For instance, farmers will benefit from precise visuals
that allow for better crop analysis, soil quality assessments, and resource management.
By prioritizing resolution, we not only meet current market demands but also future-
proof our capabilities to stay competitive and relevant. Owning and utilizing EO data
at sophisticated levels helps us move beyond simply gathering pixels. As operators, we
can add value to the imagery by fusing data from different sensors, processing it on the
fly, reducing turnaround times, educating users, and offering a wide range of services.
Additionally, we can blend imagery from various sensors and sources to create complex,
value-added products, a process known as multi-source imagery fusion. This acquisition
will also equip us with predictive geospatial analytics capabilities, enabling on-demand

19
 delivery of geospatial information tailored to users’ needs whenever they require it.
2. Owning an Earth Observation (EO) satellite for remote sensing provides a range of po-
litical advantages over relying on existing services. First and foremost, it ensures full
sovereignty over data collection, processing, and usage, eliminating dependency on for-
eign providers that may impose licensing restrictions or deny access to critical data during
emergencies or geopolitical tensions. With an independent satellite, governments can col-
lect unrestricted, real-time data for national security, disaster response, and infrastructure
monitoring without having to navigate the limitations or delays associated with third-
party services. Licensing from external providers often includes constraints on data usage,
redistribution, and sharing with allies, which can hinder international collaborations or re-
sponse efforts. In contrast, owning an EO satellite allows for unrestricted control and the
ability to tailor data-sharing policies to national interests. Moreover, having a proprietary
satellite bolsters the nation’s geopolitical influence by positioning it as a leader in space
technology and a reliable source of high-resolution imagery for regional and global part-
ners. This enhances diplomatic leverage and fosters stronger international partnerships.
Additionally, independent satellite capabilities reduce vulnerability to data manipulation,
ensuring the authenticity and accuracy of geospatial information used for policy-making.
By controlling its EO infrastructure, a country not only secures its strategic interests but
also enhances its role in global discussions on data governance, space exploration, and
sustainable development.
3. Owning an Earth Observation (EO) satellite for remote sensing provides substantial eco-
nomic advantages compared to relying on existing services. While the initial cost of
designing, building, and launching a satellite can be significant—often ranging from $100
million to $500 million depending on the payload—this investment can lead to long-term
cost savings and revenue generation. In contrast, licensing data from third-party providers
often incurs recurring expenses, with high-resolution imagery costing thousands of dollars
per scene, depending on the resolution and area covered. For example, a single high-
resolution image from a commercial provider can cost $500 to $1,000, and large-scale or
frequent data collection quickly adds up, making it more economical to own a satellite for
consistent data needs. Additionally, owning the satellite eliminates reliance on restrictive
licensing agreements that often limit data usage or impose fees for redistribution, allowing
greater flexibility and cost efficiency. Proprietary ownership also enables the development
of tailored solutions for specific industries, such as agriculture, forestry, urban planning,
and disaster management, creating new revenue streams through customized services
and value-added products. Moreover, having an in-house satellite enhances opportuni-
ties for commercialization by selling high-quality imagery and analytics to domestic and
international clients, offsetting the initial costs. Over time, this autonomy and revenue
generation can surpass the expenses associated with relying on external providers, making
it a strategically sound economic decision.
4. Owning a satellite provides a robust technical justification rooted in autonomy, precision,
and innovation. The ability to design and operate a satellite tailored to specific needs
ensures that data collected aligns precisely with the intended applications, such as agri-
culture, disaster management, urban planning, and climate monitoring. Unlike relying on
third-party services, owning a satellite enables the customization of payloads, sensors, and
imaging resolutions to meet unique technical requirements, including temporal, spectral,
and spatial resolutions that are often unavailable in commercial offerings. For instance, a
proprietary satellite can include advanced instruments like hyperspectral or multispectral
sensors, synthetic aperture radar (SAR), or thermal imaging devices, which can deliver

20
 specialized insights for diverse applications.
5. Another key technical advantage is real-time data access and reduced latency. Depen-
dency on external providers often involves delays due to data processing, prioritization
of other clients, or licensing constraints, while owning a satellite allows immediate access
to raw and processed data, enhancing decision-making in time-sensitive scenarios such as
disaster response. Moreover, owning a satellite eliminates the risks of data degradation,
manipulation, or restricted access that can occur with external providers.

2.8 African Countries Benefiting from Satellite Ownership

Kenya (Taifa-1) Focus: Agriculture, environmental monitoring, disaster management. Im-
pact: Supports farmers with crop monitoring, reduces reliance on commercial providers, and
aids in disaster response.
Nigeria (NigComSat-1R) Focus: Communication, internet access, and broadcasting. Im-
pact: Improves rural connectivity, supports education and healthcare, and reduces dependency
on foreign telecom services.
South Africa (SumbandilaSat, EO-Sat1) Focus: Agriculture, urban planning, disaster
management. Impact: Optimizes water usage, supports precision farming, and aids infrastruc-
ture development.
Rwanda (RwaSat-1) Focus: Remote sensing and education. Impact: Monitors rainfall pat-
terns, improves food security strategies, and enhances local expertise in space science.
Egypt (EgyptSat) Focus: Agriculture, urban planning, national security. Impact: Manages
Nile River resources, enhances irrigation, and supports defense operations.

2.8.1 Key Benefits

Food Security: Satellite data improves crop management and weather monitoring.
Connectivity: Expands internet access to rural areas.
Economic Growth: Supports industries like agriculture, e-commerce, and broadcasting.
Environmental Sustainability: Monitors deforestation and water resources.
Disaster Resilience: Provides real-time data for faster response to crises.
African countries are leveraging satellite technology to drive development, reduce costs, and
achieve strategic independence.)

2.9 Resolution Required To Cover The Entire Target Market

The resolution required for satellite imagery depends on the specific application or activity
being undertaken. Below is a categorized breakdown of various agricultural and environmental
applications, detailing the recommended resolutions and accessibility of corresponding satellite
imagery data.

21
• Crop Type Mapping This can be best viewed within a resolution of 10m - 30m and is
freely accessible from Sentinel-2 and Landsat.

• Crop Health Monitoring This can be best viewed within a resolution of 10m - 30m
(medium) or 1m - 5m (high) and is freely accessible from Sentinel-2, while high-resolution
data is available from WorldView is paid for.

• Yield Prediction This can be best viewed within a resolution of 10m - 30m and is freely
accessible from Sentinel-2 and MODIS.

• Irrigation Management This can be best viewed within a resolution of 10m - 30m and
is freely accessible from Sentinel-2, while higher-resolution data is available from Plan-
etScope (paid).

• Soil Moisture Monitoring This can be best viewed within a resolution of 30m - 1km and
is freely accessible from SMOS and Sentinel-1.

• Drought Monitoring This can be best viewed within a resolution of 250m - 1km and is
freely accessible from MODIS and Sentinel-3.

• Nutrient Deficiency Detection This can be best viewed within a resolution of 1m - 5m

and is accessible from GeoEye (paid) and WorldView (paid).

• Weed Detection This can be best viewed within a resolution of 1m - 3m and is accessible
from WorldView (paid) and SkySat (paid).

• Pest and Disease Detection This can be best viewed within a resolution of 10m - 30m and
is freely accessible from Sentinel-2, while higher-resolution data is available from Plan-
etScope (paid).

• Flood Impact Assessment This can be best viewed within a resolution of 250m - 1km and
is freely accessible from MODIS and Sentinel-1.

• Climate Change Impact This can be best viewed within a resolution of 250m - 1km and
is freely accessible from MODIS and Landsat.

• Precision Farming This can be best viewed within a resolution of 1m - 3m and is accessible
from SkySat (paid) and WorldView (paid).

• Land Use and Land Cover Mapping This can be best viewed within a resolution of 10m
- 30m and is freely accessible from Landsat and Sentinel-2.

22
 • Crop Stress Monitoring This can be best viewed within a resolution of 10m - 30m and
is freely accessible from Sentinel-2, while higher-resolution data is available from Plan-
etScope (paid).

• Vegetation Phenology Monitoring This can be best viewed within a resolution of 250m -
1km and is freely accessible from MODIS and Sentinel-3.

• Pesticide Application Monitoring This can be best viewed within a resolution of 1m - 3m

and is accessible from SkySat (paid) and GeoEye (paid).

• Crop Harvest Monitoring This can be best viewed within a resolution of 10m - 30m and
is freely accessible from Sentinel-2 and Landsat.

• Soil Organic Carbon Mapping This can be best viewed within a resolution of 10m - 30m
and is freely accessible from Sentinel-2 and MODIS.

• Field Boundary Mapping This can be best viewed within a resolution of 1m - 3m and is
accessible from SkySat (paid) and GeoEye (paid).

• Agricultural Water Body Monitoring This can be best viewed within a resolution of 10m
- 30m and is freely accessible from Sentinel-2 and MODIS.
Cost Overview
1. Free Sources: oSentinel-2, MODIS, Landsat: Available at no cost, accessible via platforms
such as Copernicus Open Access Hub or Google Earth Engine.
2. Paid Sources: oGeoEye, WorldView, SkySat: Pricing depends on the area and resolution
required. Costs typically start at $100 per scene or are subscription-based.

23
 Provider Resolution Cost Use Cases Access
Method
Sentinel-2 10–60m Free Agriculture, Sentinel Hub,
(ESA) forestry, land Copernicus
monitoring Hub
Landsat 15–30m Free Long-term USGS Earth-
(NASA/USGS) environmen- Explorer,
tal monitor- Google Earth
ing Engine
MODIS 250m–1km Free Global cli- NASA World-
(NASA) mate and view
land studies
Google Earth Varies Free for re- Data process- Google Earth
Engine (e.g., search ing, analysis Engine
Landsat,
Sentinel)
Maxar 30cm–1m $10–$30/km2 Urban plan- Maxar Direct
(World- ning, preci-
View) sion agricul-
ture
Airbus 30cm $20/km2 High-detail Airbus Direct
(Pleiades monitoring
Neo)
Planet Labs 3–5m $1,000– Frequent Planet Ex-
$15,000/year monitoring, plorer
agriculture
OpenAerialMap Varies Free Community- OpenAerialMap
driven Platform
projects

Table 1: The table below summarizes options for free and paid satellite imagery services,
including resolution, cost, and use cases. This comparison helps identify the most suitable data
sources based on specific needs

2.10 Remote sensing sensors

Remote sensing sensors are majorly categorized in two types i.e. passive sensor types and active
sensor types.
Passive sensors are instruments designed to receive and to measure natural emissions pro-
duced by constituents of the Earth’s surface and its atmosphere [32].However there is no re-
flection of solar energy at night though measuring thermal infrared is possible both day and
night [33].The most common types of passive sensors on satellites measure visible light, infrared
radiation, and thermal radiation from the Earth’s surface. Examples include the Landsat and
Sentinel satellites [34].
Active sensors have their own source of illumination. An active sensor is a radar instrument
used for measuring signals transmitted by the sensor that were reflected, refracted or scattered
by the Earth’s surface or its atmosphere [32].Examples of active sensors include Synthetic
Aperture Radar (SAR) Together, these sensors are used to obtain different scientific products

24
required in remote sensing for agriculture. These include;
• Land Surface Reflectance which provides an estimate of surface spectral reflectance
as measured at ground level by accounting for atmospheric effects like aerosol scattering
and thin clouds which is used in the measuring the greenness of vegetation [35].
• Evapotranspiration refers to the combined processes which move water from the Earth’s
surface into the atmosphere. It is the sum of evaporation from the land surface and
transpiration from the vegetation [36]. It is useful in monitoring and assessing water
availability, drought conditions, and crop production. It cannot be measured directly
with satellite instruments but modeled outputs are dependent on many variables such
as Land surface temperature, air temperature, solar radiation, humidity, albedo, soil
conditions, and vegetation cover [36].
• Precipitation Satellites also provide accurate observations and measurement of rainfall.
This information is important to the farmers for proper planning for the various seasons
[35].
• Land surface temperature Land Surface temperature products show the temperature
of the land or whatever is covering the earth’s surface in Kelvin and used in agriculture
to allow farmers evaluate the water requirements [35].
• Vegetation indices Vegetation indices are mathematical quantitative combinations of
the absorption and scattering of plant in different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum
[37]. Some of the vegetation indices include Normalized difference Vegetation Index which
is derived from the difference between the near infrared and red bands and provides a
measure of the amount of green vegetation present in an area.

N IR(N earInf rared) − RED

NVDI = (1)
N IR(N earInf rared) + RED

NDVI values range between -1 and + 1. Greater values indicate healthier vegetation, while
lesser values typically indicate stressed or barren land. [34] It is used in identification of
stressed crops, outbreaks of diseases, and areas needing more resources.
Other vegetation indices used include: Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), Soil adjusted
Vegetation Index (SAVI) to mention but a few.
The different satellite instruments and sensors that are used to collect the above data include:
1. Moderate Resolution ImagingSpectroradiometer (MODIS). Moderate Resolution Imag-
ing Spectro-radiometer (MODIS) is aboard the Terra and Aqua satellite mission whose
purpose is to monitor the earth’s surface, atmosphere and oceans. MODIS observes al-
most all points on the planet every 1-2 days [35]. The MODIS instrument has a spectral
resolution of 36 spectral bands, ranging in wave-lengths from 0.4 µm to 14.4 µm [35] and
providing imagery at a nominal resolution of 250 m at nadir for two bands, 500 m reso-
lution for 5 bands, and the remaining 29 bands at 1 km [36] . Data from the MODIS is
applied in Surface Reflectance, Land Cover Type and Extent, Land Surface Temperature,
Evapotranspiration, Active Fire and Albedo [35]
2. Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suit (VIIRS) a multispectral imager on the
NOAA platforms that obtains daily observations from the visible through the thermal.
VIIRS observes the entire Earth’s surface temporal resolution of twice each day from
Suomi NPP’s polar orbit 824 km [36] above the Earth’s surface with a swath width of

25
 Figure 9: MODIS sensor

3000 km [36]. It provides 22 spectral bands at two spatial resolutions, 375 meters and
750 meters. VIIRS maintains a uniform pixel size across scan by resampling. Data from
the VIIRS is relevant in obtaining Surface Reflectance (the input for vegetation indices),
Land Surface Temperature [35]

Figure 10: Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suit

3. Operational Land Imager (OLI) OLI is a push broom scanner that uses a four-mirror
telescope with fixed mirrors aboard Landsat- 8. It operates in the visible and short-wave
infrared spectral regions [38]. It has a swath width of 185 kilometers and has nine spectral
bands ranging in wavelengths from 430 nm to 2290 nm. Among the bands are blue, green
and red bands that are in the visible spectrum and hence they are used creating true color
composite images while the Near-Infrared band is used in determining the Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) [38]. It has a spatial Resolution of 30 m and temporal
Resolution of 16 days.
4. Thermal infrared Sensor (TIRS)
Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) measures land surface temperature in two thermal in-
frared bands (10.8 µm and 12 µm) with technology that applies quantum physics to detect
heat with a spatial resolution of 100 m and a . 185 km swath from the nominal altitude
of 705 km [36].
5. Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) SAR is a microwave imaging system which pro-

26
 Figure 11: OLI

duces a high-resolution image of the Earth in which microwave pulses are transmitted
by an antenna towards the earth surface and the backscattered microwave energy to the
satellite/ sensor is recorded. [33] SAR imagery is created from the reaction of an emit-
ted pulse of energy with physical structures (like mountains, forests, and sea ice) and
conditions like soil moisture. [39]
SAR is of great advantage as it is not affected by cloud cover, can be used to obtained
both day and night data, penetrates through vegetation and soil and it is sensitive to
dielectric effects. SAR is used to measure surface roughness, vegetation structure, and
soil moisture. [34]
Whereas remote sensing satellites enable us to quickly obtain rich band information in a large
range of images, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), ground sensors and Internet of Things (IoT)
technology can provide more flexible observation methods to obtain rich spatial details and high-
accuracy ground information with a spatial resolution of up to the centimeter level. [40] Relying
solely on any single data set for agricultural information monitoring will lead to difficulties in
meeting the high standards of product accuracy, time frequency, reliability, and other practical
application requirements. [40]These technologies have been widely applied in fields such as
crop mapping, agricultural parameter inversion, growth monitoring, yield estimation, pest or
disease prediction, irrigation, pesticide and fertilizer prescription mapping, and agricultural
machinery-assisted operations. [40]
The existing ground sensors and IoT systems that can support the satellite EO data in analysis
for service delivery include: soil moisture sensors, soil pH sensors, soil nutrient sensors, air,
Temperature and humidity sensors, light sensors and weather stations, yield monitors and
UAV/drone mounted sensors.

2.11 Sensors Used

1. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles or commonly known as drones and the sensors attached to them
provide high-resolution imagery and near real-time data about crop health, irrigation
requirements, and other farm issues. [1]

27
Figure 12: Major general components of a UAV, DJI Matrice M600 Pro. The aerial platform
carries the payload, which in this case, is a non-integrated RGB camera.

Sensor Type Uses

RGB (Red-Green-Blue) - Useful for collecting information regarding
vegetation stress and chlorophyll content. -
Used in the creation of orthomosaics since
they capture high-resolution images. - Used
in data collection related to agricultural
mapping. - Limited for analyzing many
vegetation indices due to their restricted
range.
NIR (Near Infrared) and Infrared - Useful for collecting information regarding
vegetation stress and chlorophyll content.
Thermal Sensors - Used to collect temperature information,
which is optimal for irrigation-management
applications.
Multispectral Sensors - Used in the detection of diseases, offering
many bands that can detect symptom
sensitivity.
Hyperspectral Sensors - Used in the detection of diseases, offering
many bands that can detect symptom
sensitivity.

Table 2: Different types of sensors and their uses.

Most UAVs come with a cheap RGB sensor attached that lack the resolution and the
spectral range for the intended applications in precision agriculture or remote sensing
hence the need to equip the UAVs with multispectral sensors which increases the overall
cost.

28
 DJI DJI DJI SenseFlyQuantix
Mavic Phan- Ma- eBee Map-
2 Pro tom trice SQ per
4 Pro 600
Multi- Pro
spec- (UAV
tral only)
Retail Price $1700 $6499 $5699
$10990 $6500
Sensor Bands RGB R, G, Varies
Parrot Red,
B, Red by sen-
Sequoia: Green,
Edge, sor:
Green, Blue,
NIR, many
Red, NIR
Color sensor
Red-
Imagery options
Edge,
Near-
Infrared,
Color
Imagery
Flight Duration 31 min- 27 min- 36 min- 55 min- 45 min-
utes utes utes (no utes utes
pay-
load),
18 min-
utes
(max-
imum
pay-
load)
Single Flight Coverage (@400 ft AGL) 200 ac 200 ac Depends 500 ac 400 ac
on sen-
sor ( 200
ac)

Table 3: Specifications of five common UAVs for agricultural applications [1]

2. Soil Moisture sensors

These are used to measure soil moisture which is essential in making timely decisions
regarding the need of irrigation and drought management. [11]They can be buried in
the soil for long-term use and provide online measurements of both surface and deep soil
moisture and there are various types that is to say capacitive, ion sensitive and resistive
soil moisture sensors. Price ranges from 100−500. [41]

29
 Figure 13: Soil Moisture water sensor

3. Soil nutrient sensors

Soil NPK sensors embedded in the soil are used to detect the amount of nitrogen, phos-
phorus, and potassium in the soil. This information is used to determine the fertility of
the soil. [42] The price for NPK sensors ranges from 50−3000 depending on quality and
intended usage. [42]
4. Weather Stations
Since climatic conditions are one of the major aspects that affect the plant growth and
output, it is necessary to obtain information growing conditions such as air temperature,
relative humidity, wind, soil temperature, and light. Therefore, meteorological informa-
tion may help the farmer make the most efficient use of natural resources to improve
agricultural production. [42] A basic weather station usually consists of a temperature
and humidity sensor, a wind speed sensor, a sensor that measures precipitation height,
and one that can assess solar radiation information. [42]
5. Crop sensors
Crop sensors measure factors like chlorophyll content, canopy height, and leaf area index
(LAI). These metrics are vital for assessing crop health and determining nutrient needs.
Farmers use portable devices or fixed sensors to gather this information in real-time.
6. Livestock Monitoring Systems
IoT devices, such as GPS-enabled collars, help monitor animal movement and behavior.
This data supports optimized grazing management, reduces overgrazing risks, and aids
in early detection of diseases.

Integration Benefits
Combining satellite and ground data improves accuracy, enhances spatial and temporal
resolution, and allows for real-time decision-making. For instance, soil moisture sensors
can validate satellite-derived soil moisture maps, ensuring higher reliability and precision.

Challenges and Costs

The high initial cost of acquiring hardware and software, as well as recurring expenses
for maintenance and data storage, can be barriers to widespread adoption. However, the
long-term benefits of improved resource use and increased yields often outweigh these
costs.

30
2.12 Insights from African Case Studies in Satellite EO Applications
Kenya
Example: The Taifa-1 satellite provides data for drought and flood risk management. Its use
in irrigation planning has boosted yields by 50%.
Impact: Enables sustainable farming in arid regions.

Figure 14: Irrigation planning

Angola
Example: Angola uses satellite EO to monitor deforestation and improve land-use practices.
Impact: Supports agricultural sustainability and environmental conservation. Defining Defor-
estation Patterns Using Satellite Images

Figure 15: Defforestation patterns

Nigeria
Example: Nigeria uses satellite EO to predict pest outbreaks, safeguarding crops. It has reduced
crop losses by 30
Impact: Enhances food security and reduces dependency on imports
South Africa

31
Example: AgriCloud uses EO for drought assessment, improving water management by 40
Impact: Strengthens resilience to climate change.

Figure 16: satellite-detected water stress area in south Africa

1. United States: Precision Agriculture with Multispectral Sensors

Sensors/Technologies: Landsat (multispectral sensors), MODIS (Moderate Resolution
Imaging Spectroradiometer). Adoption: Landsat data has been used since the 1970s,
with MODIS operational since 2000. Benefits: Enhanced crop yield mapping using Nor-
malized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI).
Improved irrigation systems through real-time soil moisture monitoring.

Progress: Corn and soybean yields in the Midwest increased by 25Irrigation water use
reduced by 15
2. India: Hyperspectral Sensors for Crop Health Monitoring
Sensors/Technologies: CartoSat-2, Sentinel-2 (multispectral), indigenous startup Pixxel’s
hyperspectral satellites.
Adoption: Sentinel-2 became widely used after 2015; Pixxel started launching satellites
in 2022.
Benefits Detection of pest infestations and nutrient deficiencies with greater accuracy.
Improved water-use efficiency in arid regions.
Progress: Rajasthan farmers reported a 20Wheat and rice yields increased by 10
3. China: Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) for Yield Monitoring
Sensors/Technologies: Gaofen series (optical and SAR sensors).
Adoption: Gaofen satellites began operation in 2013.
Benefits: Accurate tracking of crop growth stages, pest outbreaks, and soil moisture.
Enabled early detection of drought impacts in northern China.

Progress: Grain production increased by 8% in the Yangtze River Basin from 2015 to
2020. Reduced pesticide use by 12%, lowering farming costs significantly.

32
4. Brazil: Multispectral and Thermal Sensors for Deforestation and Agriculture
Sensors/Technologies: INPE’s Amazon monitoring system (multispectral), Sentinel-2
(thermal).
Adoption: Satellite programs began in the 1990s, with modern upgrades post-2010.
Benefits: Reduced illegal logging, improving soil fertility and agricultural productivity.
Optimized crop rotations using thermal and soil moisture data.
Progress: Illegal deforestation rates dropped by 15% between 2015 and 2020.
Soybean and maize productivity increased by 10% in regions using satellite-guided soil
management.
5. Australia: Optical and Thermal Imaging for Water Efficiency
Sensors/Technologies: Sentinel-2, MODIS (thermal), Landsat 8 (optical). Adoption:
Widespread adoption began in the early 2000s, with major upgrades in 2017 through
the Digital Earth Australia program.
Benefits: Real-time soil moisture monitoring in the Murray-Darling Basin. Detection of
salinity and pest hotspots in wheat fields.
Progress: Water use efficiency increased by 30%. Annual savings of $100 million in
irrigation costs.
6. Kenya: SAR and Multispectral Sensors for Drought Monitoring
Sensors/Technologies: Sentinel-1 (SAR), Sentinel-2 (multispectral).
Adoption: Programs like the Kenya Agricultural Observatory began using satellites in
2010.
Benefits: Timely drought warnings enable better resource allocation. Livestock insurance
payouts based on forage availability assessed via NDVI.
Progress: Crop losses due to drought reduced by 15-20Insurance coverage expanded to
over 200,000 farmers by 2020.
7. Nigeria: Flood Mapping and Nutrient Management
Sensors/Technologies: Landsat 8 (thermal), Sentinel-2 (multispectral).
Adoption: Active use began in 2015 with partnerships involving ESA and NASA.
Benefits: Flood mapping reduced damage to farmland. Soil nutrient maps improved
fertilizer application precision.
Progress: Flood-related crop losses dropped by 8Maize and cassava yields increased by
10
8. South Africa: SAR and Multispectral Imaging for Precision Agriculture
Sensors/Technologies: Sentinel-1 (SAR), Landsat 8 (multispectral).
Adoption: Integration into farming practices started in 2010.
Benefits: Optimized variable-rate fertilization and irrigation for vineyards and citrus
farms.
Progress: Yield increases of 20Input costs reduced by 10

33
 9. France: Vineyard Monitoring with Optical Sensors
Sensors/Technologies: Sentinel-2, Landsat 8 (multispectral).
Adoption: Used extensively since 2015.
Benefits: Satellite-guided pruning and irrigation schedules.
Progress: Wine quality improved by 15Irrigation water usage reduced by 20
10. Canada: SAR for Soil and Snow Monitoring
Sensors/Technologies: RADARSAT-2, Sentinel-1 (SAR).
Adoption: Active since 2010.
Benefits: Real-time soil moisture monitoring during planting seasons. Snow cover data
used to forecast spring runoff for irrigation.
Progress: Wheat yields improved by 10Reduced irrigation dependency by 25
11. Japan: Paddy Field Management with Hyperspectral Sensors
Sensors/Technologies: ALOS (Advanced Land Observing Satellite), Sentinel-2.
Adoption: Paddy-specific monitoring began in 2015.
Benefits: Optimized fertilizer application through chlorophyll monitoring.
Progress: Rice yields increased by 15Fertilizer use reduced by 12
12. Israel: Drip Irrigation with Multispectral Sensors
Sensors/Technologies: Sentinel-2, Landsat 8.
Adoption: Pioneered satellite-guided irrigation in the 1990s.
Benefits: Efficient use of limited water resources in desert farming.
Progress: Water efficiency improved by 30Yield increases of 20
13. Argentina: Monitoring Pampas Agriculture with Multispectral Sensors
Sensors/Technologies: Sentinel-2, MODIS. Adoption: Began in the early 2000s.
Benefits: Yield forecasting improved for soybeans and wheat.
Progress: Soybean yields increased by 12Reduced input costs by 15

2.13 Conclusion
The application of remote sensing technology in agriculture has proven to be a transformative
tool in addressing modern agricultural challenges. By leveraging advancements in satellite
imagery, UAVs (drones), and sensor technologies, remote sensing enables precise monitoring of
crop health, soil conditions, and water usage. This precision facilitates more informed decision-
making, leading to optimized resource use, reduced environmental impact, and enhanced crop
yields.

34
3 REFERENCES
References
[1] R. P. E. P. M. S. Y. G. R. J. Ward. (2023) Precision agriculture technology:
Choosing a uav and sensor for agricultural applications. NC State Extension
Publications. Accessed: 05 January 2025. [Online]. Available: https://content.ces.ncsu.
edu/precision-agriculture-technology-choosing-a-uav-and-sensor-for
[2] R. G. Barbour, Satellite Communications, 3rd ed. New York: Wiley, 2015.
[3] D. J. K. H. Lee, “Understanding satellite orbits,” Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets, vol. 54,
no. 2, pp. 345–356, March-April 2017.
[4] A. M. Smith, “The space race: A history,” Space Policy, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 215–220,
November 2016.
[5] Bryce Tech, Start-Up Space: The New Space Economy. Arlington, VA: Bryce Tech, 2021.
[6] European Investment Bank, Study on the Future of the European Space Sector. Luxem-
bourg: EIB Publications Office, 2019.
[7] Today’s weather in uganda. Accessed: 14 January 2025. [Online]. Available:
https://weather.com/en-UG/weather/today/l/UGXX0002:1:UG?Goto=Redirected
[8] Pioneering sustainable aerospace. Airbus and SatSure. Accessed: 14 January 2025.
[Online]. Available: https://satsure.co/
[9] Airbus official website. Accessed: 14 January 2025. [Online]. Available: https:
//www.airbus.com/en
[10] Tomorrow.io: Weather intelligence platform. Accessed: 14 January 2025. [Online].
Available: https://www.tomorrow.io/
[11] Nasa earth data. NASA. Accessed: 14 January 2025. [Online]. Available: https:
//www.earthdata.nasa.gov/
[12] Copernicus: Europe’s eyes on earth. Copernicus EU. Accessed: 14 January 2025. [Online].
Available: https://copernicus.eu/en
[13] Eumetsat: Monitoring weather and climate from space. EUMETSAT. Accessed: 14
January 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.eumetsat.int/
[14] Earthexplorer: Usgs satellite data. United States Geological Survey (USGS). Accessed:
14 January 2025. [Online]. Available: https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/
[15] Servir: Connecting space to village. SERVIR Global. Accessed: 14 January 2025. [Online].
Available: https://servirglobal.net/
[16] “Satellite ground station equipment: A comprehensive guide,” IEEE Communications
Society, 2023, available at: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/.
[17] Digital Signal Processing in Modern Communication Systems. Springer, 2024, available
at: https://www.springer.com/.
[18] “High-performance computing for satellite data processing,” Journal of Remote Sensing,
2023.

35
[19] “Data storage solutions for earth observation,” International Journal of Remote Sensing,
2024.
[20] “Cloud computing for satellite data processing,” Cloud Computing Journal, 2023.
[21] “Modern earth observation data processing,” Remote Sensing of Environment, 2024.
[22] “Quality assurance in satellite remote sensing,” ISPRS Journal, 2023.
[23] “Validation methods in satellite remote sensing,” Remote Sensing, 2024.
[24] “Network infrastructure for earth observation services,” IEEE Network, 2023.
[25] “Web services for earth observation data,” International Journal of Digital Earth, 2024.
[26] X. He, J. Bonds, A. Herbst, and J. Langenakens, “Recent development of unmanned
aerial vehicle for plant protection in east asia,” International Journal of Agricultural and
Biological Engineering, vol. 10, no. 3, 2017. [Online]. Available: http://www.cloudtweaks.
com/2011/12/infographic-value-of-cloud-computing-servicesthrough-the-years
[27] D. A. Chelaru, A. Ursu, and F. C. Mihai, “The analysis of agricultural landscape change
using gis techniques,” Scria Agronomic, vol. 54, pp. 73–76, 2011.
[28] (2011) Infographic: Value of cloud computing services through the
years. CloudTweaks. [Online]. Available: http://www.cloudtweaks.com/2011/12/
infographic-value-of-cloud-comput
[29] T. Lillesand, R. W. Kiefer, and J. Chipman, Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation,
7th ed. Wiley, 2015.
[30] S. K. Mitra and G. L. Sicuranza, Digital Image Processing: Remote Sensing Applications.
Springer, 2017.
[31] G. Camps-Valls, D. Tuia, and et al., Deep Learning for the Earth Sciences: A Comprehen-
sive Approach to Remote Sensing, Climate Science, and Geosciences. John Wiley Sons,
2021.
[32] C. G. Manning. (2012) What are passive and active sensors? NASA. Ac-
cessed: 08 January 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.nasa.gov/general/
what-are-passive-and-active-sensors/
[33] D. S. Gupta. (2025) Remote sensing gis applications in environmental science. Accessed:
08 January 2025. [Online]. Available: https://ebooks.inflibnet.ac.in/esp06/chapter/
active-and-passive-remote-sensing/
[34] R. Pradhan, Remote Sensing and Satellite Technology in Agronomy, first edition ed. The
Pustakalaya, 2024, pp. 375–411.
[35] S. McCartney, A. Mehta, E. Podest, and C. Hain. (2020) Satellite remote
sensing for agricultural applications. NASA Applied Remote Sensing Training
Program. [Online]. Available: https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/join-mission/training/
english/arset-satellite-remote-sensing-agricultural-app
[36] C. S. McCartney. (2021) Nasa applied remote sensing program (arset),
nasa platforms/instruments for agricultural applications. Accessed: 07 January
2025. [Online]. Available: https://appliedsciences.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/2021-05/
NASASatelliteInstrumentsRelevantforAgriculturalApplications.pdf

36
[37] S. P. S. F. P. T. Anna, “Modelling deployment costs of precision agriculture monitoring
systems,” in 16th Annual International Conference on Distributed Computing in Sensor
Systems (DCOSS), 2020.
[38] (2025) Operational land imager. Accessed: 07 January 2025. [Online]. Available:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OperationalLandImager
[39] (2025) Synthetic aperture radar (sar). Accessed: 06 January 2025. [Online]. Available:
https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/earth-observation-data-basics/sar
[40] D. W. X. Z. J. L. Wenjie, “A new remote sensing service model for agricultural production
and management based on satellite–air–ground spatiotemporal monitoring,” Agriculture
(Switzerland), vol. 13, no. 11, 2023.
[41] Ebay. Available: https://www.ebay.com/sch/i.html? nkw=soil%20moisture%20water%
20sensor&norover=1&mkevt=1&mkrid=711-34002-13078-0&mkcid=2&mkscid=
102&keyword=soil%20moisture%20water%20sensor&crlp= 5077&MT ID=&geo id=
&rlsatarget=kwd-77103429306049:loc-185&adpos=&device=c&mkt.
[42] Renkeer. (2024) 5 types of soil sensors – which is best for you? Available: https://www.
renkeer.com/5-types-soil-sensors/.

37