AIM

Determine the diameter of the given wire using screw gauge and hence find its
volume.
THEORY
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ =
𝑛
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑃𝑆𝑅 + (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐻𝑆𝑅 × 𝐿𝐶)
[PSR – Pitch scale reading, HSR – head scale reading, LC – least count ]
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙
[r – radius of the wire, l – length of the wire]
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
To find the pitch and least count
Distance moved for 5 rotations =
ns

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = =
𝑛
Number of divisions on head scale =
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

To find zero correction

Zero coincidence =
Zero correction =
Zero error =
To find volume of the wire
P.S.R. H.S.R Corrected H.S.R Total reading = Mean
P.S.R.+(Corrected H.S.R.X L.C.)
mm div div mm mm

Diameter of the wire =

Radius of the wire =
Length of the wire =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙=
RESULT
Volume of the wire =
ns
AIM
Using screw gauge, determine the thickness of the glass place and find its
volume.
THEORY
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ =
𝑛
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑃𝑆𝑅 + (𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐻𝑆𝑅 × 𝐿𝐶)
[PSR – Pitch scale reading, HSR – head scale reading, LC – least count ]
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 𝐴𝑡
[A – area of glass plate, t – thickness of glass plate]
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
To find the pitch and least count
Distance moved for 5 rotations =
ns

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = =
𝑛
Number of divisions on head scale =
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
To find zero correction
Zero coincidence =
Zero correction =
Zero error =
To find volume of glass plate
P.S.R. H.S.R Corrected H.S.R Total reading = Mean
P.S.R.+(Corrected H.S.R.X L.C.)
mm div div mm mm

Thickness of glass plate =

Area of glass plate from graph =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 = 𝐴𝑡 = =
RESULT
Volume of the glass plate =
ns
AIM
Find the volume of the given cylinder using vernier calipers
THEORY
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
[MSD = Mainn Scale Division]
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑀𝑆𝑅 + (𝑉𝑆𝑅 × 𝐿𝐶)
[MSR – main scale reading, VSR – vernier scale reading, LC – least count)]
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙
[r - radius of the cylinder, l – length of the cylinder]
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
To find least count
Value of 1 MSD =
Number of divisions on vernier scale =
ns

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
To find volume of cylinder
MSR VSR TOTAL READING = MSR+(VSRXLC) MEAN
cm div cm cm
diameter

Length

Diameter of cylinder =
Length of the cylinder =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑙 =
RESULT
Volume of the cylinder =
AIM
Determine the diameter and hence the volume of the given sphere with the
help of vernier calipers.
THEORY
𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
[MSD = Mainn Scale Division]
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑀𝑆𝑅 + (𝑉𝑆𝑅 × 𝐿𝐶)
[MSR – main scale reading, VSR – vernier scale reading, LC – least count)]
4
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3
[r - radius of the sphere]
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
To find least count
Value of 1 MSD =
ns

Number of divisions on vernier scale =

𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑀𝑆𝐷
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
To find volume of sphere
MSR VSR TOTAL READING = MSR+(VSRXLC) MEAN
cm div cm cm

Diameter of sphere =
4
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝜋𝑟 3 =
3
RESULT
Volume of the sphere =
AIM
Find the mass of the given body using parallelogram law apparatus
THEORY
𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 = 𝑶𝑫 × 𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓
Scale factor , 1 cm = 50 g.wt.

𝑊 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄 cos 𝜃

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

To find weight of the given body by measuring diagonal
Scale factor , 1 cm = 50 g.wt.
P Q OD Weight of the body = OD X scale factor
g.wt. g.wt. cm g.wt
ns

Weight of the given body =

Mass of the given body =
To find weight of the given body using cosine law
P Q ∠𝐴𝑂𝐵 Weight of the body, 𝑊 = √𝑃2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄 cos 𝜃
g.wt. g.wt. Degree g.wt

Weight of the given body =

Mass of the given body =
RESULT
Mass of the given body =
AIM
Using principle of moments determine the mass of the given body.
THEORY

𝑀𝑔 × 𝐴𝐺 = 𝑚𝑔 × 𝐵𝐺
𝑀 × 𝐴𝐺
𝑚=
𝐵𝐺
[AG – distance between M and point of suspension, BG – distance between m
and point of suspension, M – known mass, m – unknown mass]
ns

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

M AG BG 𝑀 × 𝐴𝐺
𝑚=
𝐵𝐺

g cm cm g

Mean value of m =
RESULT
Mass of the given body =
AIM
Tabulate the load – extension for a helical spring for at least three different
loads and find spring constant by calculation.
THEORY
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑀𝑔
From Hooke’s law, spring constant 𝑘 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑙
[M – mass producing extension, g – acceleration due to gravity, l – extension of
the spring ]
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Mass Pointer reading while Extension Load 𝑀𝑔
𝑘=
suspended 𝑙 producing 𝑙
𝑀 loading Unloading mean extension
𝑀𝑔
× 10−3 𝑘𝑔 cm cm cm × 10−2 𝑚 N N/m
ns

Mean k =
RESULT
Spring constant =
AIM
Draw the load extension graph of a helical spring for at least three different
loads and determine the spring constant from graph.
THEORY
𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑀𝑔
From Hooke’s law, spring constant 𝑘 = 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑙
[M – mass producing extension, g – acceleration due to gravity, l – extension of
the spring ]

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

ns

Mass Pointer reading while Extension Load 𝑀𝑔

𝑘=
suspended 𝑙 producing 𝑙
𝑀 loading Unloading mean extension
𝑀𝑔
× 10−3 𝑘𝑔 cm cm cm × 10−2 𝑚 N N/m

Mean k =
RESULT
Spring constant =
AIM
Determine the period of oscillation for lengths 65,75,85 and 95 cm using simple
pendulum. . Find acceleration due to gravity by calculation.

THEORY

𝑙
The time period of a simple pendulum is 𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

𝑙
Acceleration due to gravity 𝑔 = 4𝜋 2
𝑇2

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Radius of the bob =
Distance Length of Time for 20 oscillations Period 𝑇2 𝑙
between the 𝑡 𝑇2
ns

𝑇=
point of pendulum 20
suspension 𝑙 1 2 Mean
and top of 𝑡
bob 𝑙 − 𝑟

cm cm s s s s s2 m/s2

𝑙
Mean =
𝑇2
𝑙
Acceleration due to gravity, 𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 𝑇 2 =
RESULT
Acceleration due to gravity =
AIM
Using simple pendulum determine the period of oscillation for 65,75,85 and
95cm. Plot 𝑙 − 𝑇 2 graph. Find acceleration due to gravity using graph.
THEORY

𝑙
The time period of a simple pendulum is 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔

𝑙
Acceleration due to gravity 𝑔 = 4𝜋 2
𝑇2

𝑙 𝐴𝐵
𝑇 2 = 𝐵𝐶

𝐴𝐵
𝑔 = 4𝜋 2
𝐵𝐶
ns

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Radius of the bob =
Distance Length of Time for 20 oscillations Period 𝑇2
between the 𝑡
𝑇=
point of pendulum 20
1 2 Mean
suspension 𝑙
𝑡
and top of
bob 𝑙 − 𝑟
cm cm s s s s s2
 𝐴𝐵
From graph, =
𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐵
Acceleration due to gravity, 𝑔 = 4𝜋 2 ==
𝐵𝐶
RESULT
Acceleration due to gravity =

ns
AIM
Using resonance column apparatus, measure the resonating lengths for at least
three tuning forks. Hence find the velocity of sound at room temperature.
THEORY
If 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are the first and second resonating lengths of an air column,
𝜆
𝑙2 − 𝑙1 =
2
Velocity of sound , 𝑣 = 𝑛𝜆
Velocity of sound , 𝑣 = 2𝑛(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 )
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Frequency First resonating Second resonating 𝑣 = 2𝑛(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 )
of tuning length length
fork 𝑛 1 2 Mean 1 2 Mean
𝑙1 𝑙2

Hz cm cm cm cm cm cm cm/s
ns

Mean , 𝑣 =
RESULT
The velocity of sound at room temperature =
AIM
Determine the resistivity of the given wire by Ohm’s law. Screw gauge is
provided.
THEORY
From Ohm’s law, 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉
𝑉
𝐼=𝑅
𝑉
𝑅= 𝐼
[ R – resistance, V – voltage , I – current ]
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑅
Resistivity, 𝜌= 𝑙
[R – resistance, r – radius of resistance wire, l – length of resistance wire]

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

To find resistance
ns

Least count of ammeter =

Least count of voltmeter =
𝑉
Ammeter reading 𝐼 Voltmeter reading 𝑉 𝑅=
𝐼

A V Ω

Mean R =
To find radius of wire using screw gauge
To find the pitch and least count
Distance moved for 5 rotations =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = =
𝑛
Number of divisions on head scale =
𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
To find zero correction
Zero coincidence =
Zero correction =
Zero error =
To find volume of the wire
P.S.R. H.S.R Corrected H.S.R Total reading = Mean
P.S.R.+(Corrected H.S.R.X L.C.)
mm div div mm mm

Diameter of the wire =

ns

Radius of the wire =

To find resistivity of the wire
Length of the wire =
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑅
Resistivity, 𝜌= =
𝑙
RESULT
Resistivity of the wire =
AIM
By drawing current – voltage graph find the resistance of given wire by Ohm’s
law.
THEORY
From Ohm’s law, 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉
𝑉
𝐼=𝑅
𝑉
𝑅= 𝐼
[ R – resistance, V – voltage , I – current ]
[R – resistance, r – radius of resistance wire, l – length of resistance wire]
ns

𝐵𝐶
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ, 𝑅 =
𝐴𝐵
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Least count of ammeter =
Least count of voltmeter =
Ammeter reading 𝐼 Voltmeter reading 𝑉
A V

𝐵𝐶
From graph, 𝑅 = 𝐴𝐵 =
RESULT
Resistance of the given wire =
AIM
Find the resistance of the given wire using Ohm’s law. Also find its
conductance.
THEORY
From Ohm’s law, 𝐼 ∝ 𝑉
𝑉
𝐼=𝑅
𝑉
𝑅= 𝐼
[ R – resistance, V – voltage , I – current ]
1
Conductance, 𝐶 =𝑅
[R – resistance, r – radius of resistance wire, l – length of resistance wire]

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of ammeter =
ns

Least count of voltmeter =

𝑉
Ammeter reading 𝐼 Voltmeter reading 𝑉 𝑅=
𝐼

A V Ω

Mean R =
1
Conductance, 𝐶 = 𝑅=
RESULT
Resistance of the given wire =
Conductance of the given wire =
AIM
Determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method. Also
find its figure of merit.
THEORY
Galvanometer resistance
𝑅𝑆
𝐺= 𝑅−𝑆
[R – resistance connected in series
with galvanometer,
S – resistance connected in
parallel with galvanometer]
Figure of merit of galvanometer
1 𝐸
𝑘 = 𝜃 = (𝑅+𝐺)𝜃
[ E – emf of the cell, R – resistance connected in series with galvanometer, G –
galvanometer resistance, 𝜃 – deflection in galvanometer ]
ns

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Emf of the battery E =
Resistance Deflection in Value of Galvanometer Figure of merit
in R galvanometer resistance S to resistance 𝐸
𝑘=
𝑅𝑆 (𝑅+𝐺)𝜃
make
𝐺=
deflection half 𝑅−𝑆
Ω divisions Ω Ω A/div

Mean resistance of the galvanometer G =

Figure of merit of the galvanometer k =
RESULT
Mean resistance of the galvanometer G =
Figure of merit of the galvanometer k =
AIM
Find the focal length of the given concave mirror using u-v method calculation.
Verify using normal reflection method.
THEORY
u-v method

1 1 1
=𝑣+𝑢
𝑓
[f – focal length, u – object distance, v –
image distance]
𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
𝑢+𝑣
Normal reflection
ns

𝑅
𝑓= 2

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

u-v method
Distance between mirror and 𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
Object u Image v 𝑢+𝑣
cm cm cm

mean f =
Normal reflection method
Distance between mirror and wire gauze R 𝑅
𝑓=
2
cm cm

Mean f =
RESULT
Focal length of the concave mirror using u-v method calculation =
Focal length of the concave mirror using normal reflection method =
ns
AIM
Find the focal length of the given concave mirror by drawing u-v graph.
THEORY

1 1 1
𝑓
=𝑣+𝑢
[f – focal length, u – object distance,
v – image distance]
𝑢𝑣
𝑓 = 𝑢+𝑣

U – V graph

𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵
𝑓= 4
ns

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Distance between mirror and
Object u Image v
cm cm

𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵
Focal length from u – v graph = 𝑓 = =
4
RESULT
Focal length of the concave mirror from u-v graph =
AIM
Find the focal length of the given concave mirror by drawing 1/u – 1/v graph.
THEORY

1 1 1
=𝑣+𝑢
𝑓

[f – focal length, u – object distance,

v – image distance]
𝑢𝑣
𝑓 = 𝑢+𝑣

1/u – 1/v graph

2
𝑓 = 𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵
ns

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Distance between mirror and 1 1
Object u Image v 𝑢 𝑣
cm cm cm-1 cm-1

2
Focal length from1/u – 1/v graph = 𝑓 = 𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵 = =

RESULT
Focal length of the concave mirror from 1/u – 1/v graph =
AIM
Find the focal length of the given concave mirror using u-v method calculation.
Verify using distant object method.
THEORY
u-v method

1 1 1
=𝑣+𝑢
𝑓
[f – focal length, u – object distance,
v – image distance]
𝑢𝑣
𝑓 = 𝑢+𝑣
Distant object method
ns

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

u-v method
Distance between mirror and 𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
Object u Image v 𝑢+𝑣
cm cm cm

mean f =
Distant object method
Distance between screen and mirror f Mean f
cm cm

RESULT
Focal length of the concave mirror using u-v method calculation =
Focal length of the concave mirror using distant object method =
ns
AIM
Find the focal length of a convex lens by u-v method calculation
THEORY
U – V method
Focal length of the convex
lens is
𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
𝑢+𝑣
[u – object distance,
v – image distance]
Distant object method
ns

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

u-v method
Distance between lens and 𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
Object u Image v 𝑢+𝑣
cm cm cm

mean f =
Distant object method
Distance between screen and lens f Mean f
cm cm

RESULT
Focal length of the given convex lens =
ns
AIM
Find the focal length of the given convex lens by drawing u-v graph.
THEORY

1 1 1
𝑓
=𝑣+𝑢
[f – focal length, u – object
distance, v – image distance]
𝑢𝑣
𝑓 = 𝑢+𝑣
U – V graph

𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵
𝑓= 4
ns

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Distance between lens and
Object u Image v
cm cm

𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵
Focal length from u – v graph = 𝑓 = =
4
RESULT
Focal length of the convex lens from u-v graph =
AIM
Find the focal length of the given convex lens by drawing 1/u – 1/v graph.
THEORY

1 1 1
=𝑣+𝑢
𝑓

[f – focal length, u – object

distance, v – image distance]

𝑢𝑣
𝑓=
𝑢+𝑣
1/u – 1/v graph

2
𝑓 = 𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵
ns

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Distance between lens and 1 1
Object u Image v 𝑢 𝑣
cm cm cm-1 cm-1

2
Focal length from1/u – 1/v graph = 𝑓 = = =
𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵
RESULT
Focal length of the convex lens from 1/u – 1/v graph =
AIM
Find the focal length of convex mirror using a convex lens
THEORY

𝑅
𝑓=
2

[ f – focal length, R – radius of curvature of mirror ]

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
ns

Distance between mirror and screen R 𝑅

𝑓=
2
cm cm

Mean R =
RESULT
Focal length of the convex mirror =
AIM
Find the focal length of the given concave lens by keeping it in contact with a
convex lens.
THEORY
1 1 1
= +
𝐹 𝑓1 𝑓2
𝐹𝑓1
𝑓2 =
𝑓1 − 𝐹
[ 𝑓1 – focal length of convex lens, 𝑓2 – focal length of concave lens,
𝐹 – effective focal length of combination of lenses]
𝑢𝑣 𝑢𝑣
𝑓1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 =
𝑢+𝑣 𝑢+𝑣
[u – object distance, v – image distance ]
ns
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Lens used Distance between lens and Focal length Mean
Object u Image v 𝑢𝑣
𝑓= 𝑢+𝑣
cm cm cm cm
Convex lens 𝑓1 =

Combination 𝐹=
of lenses

𝐹𝑓1
Focal length of the concave lens , 𝑓2 = =
𝑓1 −𝐹

RESULT
Focal length of the concave lens =
ns
AIM
Draw the V – I characteristics of a PN junction diode in forward bias.
THEORY

I – V graph – forward characteristics

ns

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Least count of voltmeter =
Least count of ammeter =
Forward bias voltage 𝑉𝐸 Forward current 𝐼𝐸
V mA

RESULT
Forward characteristics of the diode is drawn.