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NUST Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies (NIPCONS)

MAS Dept

Defining Futures

7th Semester
Research Methodology
RM – 7
Communicate Effectively Results of the Research Process
Producing a Formal Research Report /
Writing a Research Paper

Sponsor: Brig Aslam Rana (Retd)

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ART OF WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER AND THESIS

WRITING A GOOD RESEARCH REPORT

What is a Research Report?

1. Research reporting is an oral or a written presentation of important and useful
aspects ofthe research work done. This is intended to present clearlythe purpose
and outcome of a specific research investigation. It is the last but a major partof the
research study. A report helps the researcher get feedback from other
researchersand experts working in the same field. It also evaluates the success and
originality of theresearcher’s work. Without a report, a research study is incomplete
and of no use. A reportessentially conveys the outcome of a research work to
interested persons or to the organization that has initiated / sponsored the research.
Brilliant workis of little value if itis not effectively communicated / presented.
Types of Research Paper

2. Research paper may refer to:

a. Academic paper (also called scholarly paper), which is in academic
journals and contains original research results or reviews existing
results or show a totally new invention.
b. Position paper, an essay that represents the author's opinion.
c. Term paper, written by high school or college students.
d. Thesis or dissertation, a document submitted in support of a
candidature for a degree or professional qualification, presenting the
author's research and findings
3. What is Research Paper or Article and Thesis orDissertation?
a. Most research papers fall into one of three categories: analytical,
expository, or argumentative. If you're presenting an analysis of
information, then your paper is analytical. If you're writing to explain
information, then your paper is expository.
b. BS Level.A research paper (project) is a mandatory requirement of the 8 th
Semester in the UG programmes under HEC of Pakistan. It is meant to
demonstrate the research person’s original thinking and contribution to the
topic of research in the chosen field.
c. Ph.D. dissertation is a report of the entire work done by a researcher to
auniversity or an institution for the award of the degree and isthe central
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element of a Ph.D. education. A Ph.D. dissertation is a lengthy, original

and substantial document. It should containoriginal contributions.
d. M.Phil.dissertation is designed as a practice for Ph.D. thesis which helps
the researcher learn andunderstand the present status of the topic and
make him capable of working at the Ph.D. level. The work done for an
M.Phil. Dissertation need not be publishable in journals.

4. Characteristics of a Good Report. A good report results from deliberate,

painstaking and accurate inductive work. To attracta reader, the reading matter of a
report should be clear and interesting. It should not beobscure and dull. The write-up
should be logical, clear and concise. The physicist CyrilIsenberg (University of Kent)
writes: “One has to present the work like a meal in a visuallyattractive and palatable
way. It must be easily digested and, one hopes, long remembered. Apaper that is
difficult to understand and is not presented in a logical way, relying heavily on results
in other papers, is like a dry biscuit, with little sustaining value and even less taste.
Itwill not be digested and will be left unread or abandoned”.
5. The basic quality or characteristicsof a good report/paper and thesis are the
following:
a. good presentation
b. good organization of various chapters/sections
c. accuracy
d. clarity
e. Free from contradictions and confusion.
6. What are the considerations to be kept in mind while preparing a report?
a. First, an outline of a report has to be prepared.
b. A sketch of what information to be conveyed must be made.
c. Then, one can write down various topics, subtopics to be considered
and what materialto be presented in them.
d. The sentences which are to be expanded reworded and verified for its
validity can bemarked.The outline of the report helps us concentrate
on:-
(1) what is to be presented,
(2) logical relationships between different parts of the report,
(3) smooth flow of the content and
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(4) Continuity in the presentation.

(5) The outline can be discussed with the guide, collaborators,
colleagues and experts in localarea. Based on their comments
the structure of the report can be modified.
e. A three stage preparation of a report is generally done by
researchers. They are:
1) First draft – Rough draft.
2) Second draft – Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft.
3) Third draft – Writing the final draft.
First Draft.
6. In this stage a researcher can write:-
a. What has been done in the research study?
b. Procedure, method, theory and technique applied,
c. Technical difficulties faced and how they were overcame,
d. Broad findings and
e. Concluding remarks.
7. Tables and charts can be typeset using computer and kept separately in order
to avoidrewriting them. Conclusion should be precise, clear and objective.
Further directions maybe pointed out. Since a research paper is identified by its title
it should be brief and not more thanabove 10-15 words. A subject index of a paper
is primarily based on the words in thetitle. Therefore, few key words which are
helpful to classify the paper can be includedappropriately in the title.
8. How does a reader decide whether to read the content of a paper or not?
Abstract servesthe purpose. By reading the abstract a reader would decide whether
the content of thepaper is useful to him. Therefore, the abstract should have positive
information about thecontent of the paper and summary of the work reported in it.
Further, if the abstract hasfinal results and main conclusion of the paper then a
reader who has a general interest inthe subject can know the outcome of the paper
without reading the entire text by referringthe abstract itself.
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Second Draft.
9. This is the most important and difficult part of the writing. Extreme care must
be takenin writing this draft. One convenient approach is to edit the draft imagining
that someoneelse has written it.Unclear points, jargons, weakness of the report have
to be identified and revised. Over-generalizationof outcomes should be avoided.

10. How do you avoid over-generalization? If you have introduced any graphics
and tables, discussit in the text.Attention must be paid to the arguments made,
logical flow of work presented, the qualityof supporting evidences and conclusion
drawn. Do these in each chapter. Don’t do the entiresecond stage at a single stretch.
Give sufficient time between revisions of two consecutivechapters. During the break
time think over the revision made in the previous chapter orsection.More importantly,
grammar must be checked. A careful spell check must be made.Use simple words
as far as possible. Indecisive words such as perhaps, somewhat; rather,etc.
should be avoided. Usage of some particular words repeatedly, for example,
‘very’,‘extraordinary’, ‘invariably’ should be avoided. Expressions such as ‘it seems’,
‘there maybe’, ‘since’, ‘putting’, etc. should be replaced by appropriate equivalent
words.Style, presentation and grammar can be improved.In some universities the
report is first read by an English teacher. He will correct thegrammar and give
suggestions. After this only a researcher can submit the research paper.Similar
sentences orsentences conveying same information must be eliminated.
Check whether the words used clearly convey exactly the meaning intended.

11. (J. Horgan, Current Science, 67 (1994) pp.500-01).B.S. Warrier says: ‘There is
one clear distinction between an article and a thesis in useof vocabulary. You may
find that authors of popular writing make use of synonyms to killmonotony. The
conclusion may carry something more than a repetition of the findings
indicatedelsewhere. All conclusions should be directly related to the research.
Perhaps the conclusioncould reveal a special insight of yours, throwing up a
possibility of the findings being appliedto a different situation or even different
discipline. Proper references of related work shouldbe included. Trivial matters and
obvious conclusion should not be included and if there aresuch sentences then they
should be dropped’.
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Third Draft
12. This is the last stage. In this stage, one can concentrate on final touches and
finishing.This should be in the direction of making the report weighty, authoritative,
attractive andconvincing. Similar words and format should be avoided in successive
sentences. Make surethat the script clearly shows the originality of the author and
importance of the outcome ofthe study performed.
13. Style of Writing. In all the three stages of research paper preparation one
should follow a proper style of writing.Use clear and unadorned English appropriate
for the readers. One has to be aware of towhom the research report is intended. The
report is not for the supervisor. It is better toavoid the use of personal pronoun. Use
of “I” and “the author” should be avoided. Both active and passive voice should be
used wherever necessary or appropriate. However,when using them one should
check whether the meaning is strictly correct. Care must be taken in using
presentand past tenses. Use past tense to describe the data collection and work
done by others andyou. For interpretation, assessments and discussions present
tense is appropriate.Since a research article is to be read by experts in the field,
avoid expressions such as“In other words” and “To put it in a simpler way.” Experts
may not take kindly to suchphrases, as they feel that they are competent to grasp
even complex ideas stated in difficultidiom.
14. How do you ensure that your paper will be well received by readers?
Some of the suggestionsare:-
a. Before sending it, author can ask colleagues and friends working inthe
same field to read it and comment on it.
b. The paper can be given to colleagues who are not familiar with the
topic so that itcan be attracted by non-specialists in the field.
c. Don’t feel offended if the colleagues suggest drastic changes.
d. Think back to couple of papers which have made an impression on you
and are stilllong remembered. Note down and analyse the style,
presentation and other featuresthat have impressed you.
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LAYOUT OF A RESEARCH PAPER

15. The Research Paper is meant to be a formal paper written in a style

comparable to those appearing in the more scholarly publications it is therefore
recommended that it follow a given format.

16. Normally the paper should be composed of three basic sections: the
preliminaries, text and the reference material. The sequence of following outline
should generally be observed: -
a. Preliminaries. Consist of: -

(1) Title Page.

(2) Theme.
(3) Abstract or thesis statement.
(4) Preface (if any)

(5) Table of contents (list of tables and list of illustrations may be

included when applicable.
b. Text. Consists of
(1) Introduction (Chapter 1).
(2) Main body of the paper.
(3) Conclusions and Recommendations (Final Chapter).
c. Reference Material. Consists of
(1) Annexes.
(2) Footnotes and Bibliography.

17. Preliminaries

a. Title Page. The title page is the first preliminary page of the
paper. It
must show the title of the research paper as well as the name and
particulars of the author. This is page I of the thesis and is numbered.

b. Theme. Actual theme allotted by the College should be given.

This is
page ii of the thesis/paper and is numbered.

c. Abstract. The abstract is a specialized form of working which presents

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the nucleus of a research paper including a concise summary of the

findings and any recommendations, in the most organized and
condensed format favourable to effective communication. An abstract
consists of short statement of the problem, a brief exposition of the
methods and procedures employed in gathering the data, and a
condensed summary of the findings. The abstract should tell the reader
what problem was studied, what was done by the researcher and what
conclusions were drawn. The Abstract is properly, a thesis in
microcosm, distilled to 200 words. In composing an abstract following
should be kept in view:-

(1) It should be titled "Abstract of” and should not contain a mere
list of the Chapters or the main headings of the paper nor tell the
reader that it contains "analyses, descriptions and conclusions.
(2) It should contain the central ideas, facts, analyses and
conclusions.

(3) The abstract will be page iii of the thesis/paper and is numbered.
I should be restricted to 200 words only.

(4) The abstracts are written and stored as data base for the
convenience of the reader. Therefore it should be carefully
worded to facilitate accurate computer storage and reference
listings for retrieval.

d. Preface. The preface should not be confused with an abstract or an

introduction. It enables the author to address the reader directly,
presenting a succinct statement of his objectives (that is his purpose
and task), and the paper's scope. In addition, a preface acknowledges,
when applicable, all research assistance from persons and institutions,
who were the source of important data or of ideas that were of material
assistance to the author in the development of the thesis/paper. This
would be page IV of the thesis and is numbered.

e. Table of Contents. The organization of the thesis and its contents are
outlined on this page. It provides the reader with a summary of the
scope and the order of development of the author's argument. This is
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page v of the thesis and is numbered

18. Text The text of the research paper follows the preliminaries:-

a. Introduction. In this chapter the author presents a clear and

complete but succinct statement of his research problem that is a
description of his purpose and task. It is also the proper place to
discuss the limitations and scope of the research paper. The author
may also wish to mention any basic assumptions used and to define an
special terms unique to the paper or used in a restricted manner. Here
the author should also review briefly the organization or the reminder of
the paper. This allows the reader to determine at a glance the
relationship between various parts of the paper. Some aspects of the
introductory part of the thesis/paper are: -

(1) Statement of the Research Problem. This statement should be

a clear, concise statement of the nature and scope of the
problem that will be investigated. Placing the problem statement
early in the introduction accomplishes several purposes: -

a) It tells the reader what the proposed study is about.

(b) It provides the foundation upon which the remainder of

the proposal can be built.

(c) It provides a framework for interpreting the remaining

content of the proposal and making judgments
concerning its adequacy.

(2) Background or Context of the Problem. The first few

Paragraphs are generally devoted to giving the reader a frame
of reference for the problem. It typically provides some indication
of how and why the research problem emerged and how pursuit
of the research problem will contribute to a solution to the
problem.

(3) Hypothesis Research Questions and Research Objectives.

Seldom can a research project be reduced to a single question
or a problem. Usually there are several related problems or
issues to be examined by the researcher. Thus while the
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problem statement provides an overview of the research project

as a whole, it is in stating hypotheses, research questions or
research objectives that specific purposes of the study are
described.
(4) Hypotheses. Hypotheses should be used whenever the
research project is experimental or designed to test a theory or a
trend. For the beginning researcher, the value of hypotheses lies
in clarifying in detail the issue to be addressed. The research
hypothesis is an expression of a predicted relationship between
some sort of variables, based on evidence in the literature, the
experience or observations of the researcher, or other reliable
data. For example, a researcher might hypothesize that "The
Military Academy Graduates do better than the graduates of the
Officer Training School." Most research text authors agree that
where possible, the hypotheses should be stated in null form.
For example: "The Officer Training School graduates do not do
better than the Military Academy Graduates."

(5) For the thesis of historical or descriptive nature formulating

research questions or research objectives may be more
appropriate for delineating the specific problem and giving
direction to the study.

(6) Assumption. An assumption is any underlying proposition or

statement that must be accepted as true in order to undertake
the research.

(7) Definitions. Any variable or term that is integral to a research

study should be operationally defined.

(8) Limitations. Limitations of a proposed study are weaknesses

resulting from constraints or restrictions beyond the control of
the researcher. Limitations may be non-availability of some
documents due to classification, tune constraints or some
inherent weaknesses of some research designs. The researcher

should carefully analyze and specify both delimitations and

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limitations in their proposals.

(9) Delimitations. Delimitations are constraints necessarily

imposed on the scope or content of the study by the researcher
in order for the project to be manageable or even feasible.

(10) Significance of the Study. The reader and reviewers of

research typically seek some indication of the relevance of the
research either to the body of theory underlying a given field of
study, to practice within the field, or to both. The opening of the
thesis must also include some indication of how the research to
be done will fill the knowledge gap, expand the theoretical base,
or perhaps contribute to the solution to the problem. Proposals
for research aimed at solving practical military problems would
be highly regarded.

(11) Survey of Literature. There are many purposes for including

the survey of literature in the thesis/paper. It provides the
historical and theoretical framework which should help the
researcher to put into perspective his thesis problem and his
approach to its solution. On any given subject, military or
civilian, there generally is a broad spectrum of viewpoints,
theories and opinions. Research questions from which thesis
topics are drawn are often essentially challenges to existing
theory. It is important therefore, that students be conversant
with the predominant "schools of thought" which prevail in the
subject area(s) related to their thesis topics. A second and
equally important purpose is that a comprehensive, thorough
literature review allows the student to isolate previous research
on the topic and provide a basis for developing a more sharply
focusing research questions, hypotheses or research objectives.

The results of the literature search also demonstrate to the

readers the student's broad grasp of the body of the knowledge
that constitutes the particular field of investigation.

b. Main Body. Main body is usually divided into chapters. Each chapter
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in turn, may be divided into sections and sub sections. The

review of the literature and methodology adopted for the conduct of the
research may be part of the main body, particularly, in a short paper.
Here, it is important to note, that the flow of the arguments of the
author must be presented in as logical a sequence as possible.

19. Conclusions and Recommendations. This chapter is the final chapter of

the text and states the author's conclusions and any recommendations. The author
may wish to qualify his findings by citing instances of incomplete or unverified data.
The limiting remarks should precede the statement of the author's conclusions.
Moreover, the author may use the final chapter to indicate additional problems
uncovered as a result of his investigation, problems which require research beyond
the scope of the study reported. This chapter, in fact, takes the reader back to the
original hypotheses and questions and answers them. Were the hypotheses
supported, why and why not? What are the answers to the research questions
posed in the opening chapter? Also the final chapter should suggest the meaning of
the study, the significance of its outcome and its contribution to the knowledge base
or the solution of the related problems. The author is cautioned to avoid introduction
of factual or analytical evidence not already presented in the main body of the paper.
Additional sections of this chapter should be:-

a. Relationship to Previous Studies . This is an essential part of the last

chapter; the research project would be incomplete without it. Here the
researcher goes back to the review of the literature in the opening
chapters/parts to see if and where the thesis results conflict or conform
with other studies in the same area. This section is an attempt to tie
the thesis into a larger body of knowledge.

b. Suggestions for Further Research. Here the researcher assumes

that given time he could go on from where he stopped work on his
thesis, what other related areas would he have explored.
20. Reference Material

a. Annexes. The annex is employed to present relative material that is

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not essential to the basic text. The author must avoid inclusion of data
unrelated to the text.

c. Footnotes and Bibliography. The bibliography should contain

entries of all references used in the preparation of the paper including,
in addition to all references cited in footnotes, every work relevant to
the author's formulation and solution of his problem.

21. Style Individual style is encouraged as long as it reflects good taste, good
usage and clarity. There are at least two major definitions of style. One deals
with the way the prose reads in terms of syntax, rhythm, word choice and
general readability. Style also deals with consistency. The goal is clear,
effective communication. Some pointers to scholarly style: -

a. Write in simple direct style. Be scholarly, precise and grammatically

correct, but without affection. Recall the advice of Polonius to Laertes,
in Hamlet: "Brevity is the soul of wit."

b. Proper word use is important. Avoid jargon and check word meanings
in a reliable dictionary.
c. Be judicious in the use of quoted materials. Most ideas should be
stated in the words of the researcher. Do not fill half a page with quoted
material. Choose wisely.
d. Avoid the use of slang and faddish words.
e. Do not use contractions in scholarly writing, unless they are in quoted
material. These make writing appear casual.

f. In the first reference to an individual, include the full name and if he or

she is not well known, some identification.

g. Write in the past tense. Remember that in research you are telling the
reader what happened.

h. Avoid plagiarism - the use of the words or ideas of others without

proper recognition of the source.
QUESTIONNAIRE TD RM - 7
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Q – 1. What is a research report? What are different types of research reports/

research papers?

Q – 2. What are characteristics of a good research report/ research paper?

Q – 3. Write complete layout of a research paper.

Q – 4. What is difference between ‘Foot Notes’ and ‘Bibliography’? How are these
written in a research paper?
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REFERENCES FOR FURTHER STUDY

1. Chris Thaiss and Terry Myers Zawacki (2006) Engaged Writers and
Dynamic Disciplines: Research on the Academic Writing Life, Portsmouth:
Boynton/Cook, [5-7].
2. Stephen Catterall; Christopher Ireland (October 2010). "Developing Writing
Skills for International Students: Adopting a critical pragmatic
approach". ResearchGate.
3. Hyland, Ken (22 July 2004). Disciplinary Discourses, Michigan Classics Ed.:
Social Interactions in Academic Writing.

4. Canagarajah, A. Suresh (2002). A Geopolitics of Academic Writing.

University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0-8229-7238-9.

5. Coinam, David (2004). 'Concordancing Yourself: A Personal Exploration of

Academic Writing', Language Awareness, Vol. 13, Issue 1, pp. 49–55.

6. Phyllis, Creme; Mary, Lea (1 May 2008). Writing At University: A Guide For
Students. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). ISBN 978-0-335-22116-5.

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