REVIEW GRADE 9

THE BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

• In 55 BC, Julius Caesar crossed the English Channel and discovered Great Britain.
• The people living there were called Celts, who were peaceful farmers.
• Julius Caesar did not conquer Britain during his visit.
• In A.D. 43, the Romans under Emperor Claudius successfully conquered Britain.
• The Roman conquest of Britain changed its history and development.
• In 449, several invasions from the European continent occurred in Britain.
• The invaders were Germanic tribes from the Danish peninsula and southern Scandinavia.
• These tribes were the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons.
• They lived semi-agricultural and semi-nomadic lifestyles, like other northern European
groups.
• Society was divided into two classes:
o The earl (ruling class).
o The churl (descendants of war captives).
• The earls were loyal to their king, who was:
o A brave leader in war.
o A wise judge and generous in rewarding loyalty during peace.
• The social system during this time was very simple.
• Justice followed the rule of "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth."
• This was softened by a system of "blood money", where a fine could be paid by the killer to
the victim’s family.
• In these troubled times, might was right – the strongest ruled.
• The warrior was the most important person in society, solving most problems.
• War was a common way of life during this period.
• Churls were the common people who:
o Worked the land.
o Hunted and fished for their earl.

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• Churls could become freemen, but there were very few freemen compared to churls.
• Churls were a large, hardworking group who lived and died quietly.
• Women had limited roles and were mostly valued for domestic duties or as marriageable and
decorative elements.
• Society followed a warrior's code of:
o Pride.
o Loyalty.
o Courage to one's king.
• Earls and thanes (noble followers) followed this code.
• A significant change came with the arrival of Christianity:
• Christianity was introduced to Britain before A.D. 40
o After the Romans left, Irish missionaries helped keep Christianity alive.
o In 597, Pope Gregory the Great sent St. Augustine as a missionary to England.

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BEOWULF

• When the Spear-Danes had no king, a ship arrived with treasures, weapons, and a baby
named Scyld.
• Scyld grew up to be a powerful warrior and became the king of the Spear-Danes.
• Scyld had a son named Beowulf, who also became a great warrior and king.
• The story begins with Hrothgar, the current king of the Danes and a descendant of Scyld.
• Hrothgar built a magnificent hall called Heorot, where his thane (noble followers) gathered to
feast and listen to songs.
• One night, a monster named Grendel attacked Heorot, killing and carrying away thirty
warriors.
• Grendel continued his attacks for twelve years, and no weapon could harm him.
• Beowulf, a young hero from the Geats and nephew of King Hygelac, heard about Grendel and
decided to help the Danes.
• Beowulf sailed with fourteen companions to fight Grendel and free the Danes.
• He was welcomed with feasting at Heorot, but fear of Grendel made everyone leave the hall at
night.
• Beowulf chose to stay in the hall, saying he would fight Grendel with his bare hands, as
weapons were useless.
• Beowulf and his men stayed in Heorot that night, prepared to face the monster.
• At midnight, Grendel burst into Heorot, eager for men-flesh.
• He seized one of Beowulf's warriors, crushed his head, tore him apart, and swallowed him.
• Beowulf saw Grendel coming and grabbed the monster’s arm with a strong grip.
• A fierce struggle took place, with tables and benches being overturned and the building
shaking.
• Grendel tried to escape but lost his arm in the struggle. He fled to his sea home, dying in pain.
• Beowulf hung Grendel’s arm on a beam as a trophy, and the Danes celebrated his victory with
a feast.
• However, Grendel’s mother, a similar monster, attacked and carried off more of Hrothgar’s
men.

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• Beowulf decided to kill Grendel's mother. He followed her tracks to a murky inland sea.
• He dived into the water and fought Grendel’s mother. Although she attacked him, his strong
armor protected him.
• Beowulf found a magic sword in the cave, used it to kill Grendel’s mother, and saw her dead.
• The magic sword melted in his hands after he cut off her head.
• The poem ends with Beowulf's last adventure as an old man. He had ruled for fifty years and
was loved by his people.
• A subject had stolen a vase from a dragon's treasure, causing the dragon to attack a village
and kill its inhabitants.
• Beowulf fought the dragon, killed it, but was injured by the dragon’s fire.
• He died surrounded by the dragon’s treasure and was buried with great honors by his people.

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MODALS

Modals help send a CLEARER message in expressing different intentions. These intentions include
but are not limited to Obligation, Prohibition, Permission, Ability, and Suggestions. Moreover, Modals
emphasize the meaning of the main verb that it governs.

Examples:
o Alice Guo must not tell lies in the senate hearing. She will just worsen the situation.
o The Student Council Officers can reprimand the students who do not recognize school laws and
regulations.

PERMISSION

Permission modals tend to be used in requests. The strength of the modal will determine how formal a
request is by adding a degree of formality to a question. In expressing permission, the modals CAN
and MAY may be used.

Examples:
1. Alice Guo on McLaren issue; Madam Chair, “can I just check the surname of Sir Roy on my
phone?”
2. May we see and check the birth certificate of Mayor Alice Guo to confirm her real identity?

Modals CAN and MAY are used when requesting the authority or consent of someone before acting.

OBLIGATION

Obligation modals express commitment or duty towards a particular action.

Examples:
1. Students and employees of Holy Family Academy have to segregate their wastes properly. In
this little act, we can be genuine steward of creation and help in saving our environment.

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 2. Alice Guo must attend the senate hearings to clarify some issues about POGO.

Modals HAVE/HAS TO and MUST indicate obligation.

PROHIBITION

Prohibition is basically the opposite of giving permission. It is when an authority tells that action
MUST NOT or CANNOT be performed or done.

Examples:
1. Familians must not bring their cellular phones in school.
2. Motorists cannot move forward once the red light is on. They might cause road accident if they
do so.

Modals CANNOT or MUST NOT convey the idea that something is not allowed or prohibited, often by
law.

/ljt