SENSORS

Sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into an electrical
signal. Examples are temperature sensors, displacement, position, motion, velocity
sensors, fluid sensors, liquid flow, liquid level, light sensors etc.
Characteristics of Sensors: Sensor characteristics are of two types;
➢ Static Characteristics

➢ Dynamic Characteristics
Static characteristics refer to the steady state relationship between sensor input and
output while dynamic characteristics refer to the relationship between the sensor input
and output when the measured quantity varies rapidly.
Static Characteristics
(i) Range: The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary.
Example: a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range of
25 - 225 °C.
(ii) Span: Span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input.
Thus, the above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 225-25 = 200 °C.
(iii) Error: Error is the difference between the measured value and the true value of the
quantity. Example: A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm, when the
actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is 0.2 mm.
(iv) Sensitivity: Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of
a sensor per unit change in input value. For example, a temperature sensor may have a
sensitivity of 10 mV/°C. If 1oC raise in temp results in 10mV.
(v) Non-Linearity: The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual
measured curve of a sensor from the ideal curve. It is as shown in the graph of the sensor’s
output against input below;

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(vi) Hysteresis: hysteresis is an error of a sensor which is defined as the maximum
difference in output at any measurement value within the sensor’s specified range when
approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter.
It is shown in the plot below;

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(vii) Accuracy: This is the closeness to the actual value.
viii) Precision: Precision is defined as the ability of sensor to reproduce a certain set of
readings within given accuracy. Precision depends upon repeatability.
ix) Stability: Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output with a constant
input over a period.
(x) Dead band: The dead band or dead space of a sensor is the range of input values for
which there is no output.
(xi) Repeatability: It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated
applications of same input value under same conditions.
(xii) Output Impedance: It is the impedance measured at the output of sensor. It is
necessary to know the output impedance of a sensor because the electrical output of
sensor is interfaced with an electronic circuit.
Dynamic Characteristics
(i) Response time: This is the time which elapsed by sensor to gives an output
corresponding to some specified percentage (90-95%) of its steady value after a constant
input, a step input, is applied.
(ii) Time constant: The time constant is a measure of the inertia of the sensor and so how
it will react to changes in its input. This is the 63.2% response time.
(iii) Rise time: This is the time taken for the output to rise from 10% to 90 % of its steady
value.
(iv) Settling time: This is the time taken for the output to settle to within some small
percentage (2%) of steady state value.
The dynamic characteristics are shown below;

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Classification of sensors
In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Active and Passive.
Active sensors (self-generating): Does not require power for its operation. Example:
Thermocouple.
Passive Sensors (external supply): Require external power for its operation Example:
Photodiode.
In the second classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Analog and digital.
Analog Sensors: Analog Sensors produce an analog output, that is, a continuous output
signal with respect to the quantity being measured. Example: LDR, Strain gauge.
Digital Sensors: Digital Sensors, in contrast to Analog Sensors, work with discrete or digital
data. The data in digital sensors, which is used for conversion and transmission, is digital
in nature. Example: IR, PIR.
Selection of Sensors
The accurate choice and selection of a sensor depends on the knowledge about its
application, the variability of product and the condition of the operating environment.
The following parameters should be considered while selecting a sensor for an application
➢ Operating principle

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➢ Availability
• Sources-Location, delivery schedule, payment options, Continuation of supply.
➢ Cost
• Cost of sensor itself, delivery cost.
➢ Performance figures
• Range, ease of use, power supply requirements, accuracy, hysteresis effect and
any other.
Measuring range/ Range of operations
While selecting a sensor (temperature sensor, proximity sensor, accelerometer sensor,
etc), the measuring range should directly correspond with the physical measuring range
so that most precise reading and optimal sensor lifespan can be achieved. Is this sensor
used within a single warehouse, across a campus, or regionally/nationally/globally in the
field? It’s important to identify the particular geographies involved and determine if the
particular sensor has connectivity in those regions (in terms of the frequency bands
supported and carrier availability).
Environment
We must be aware of environmental conditions while selecting a sensor. Numerous
sensors can be affected by the environmental conditions (such as temperature variation,
gas, humidity, chemicals, etc.)
Flexibility
While selecting a sensor, we need to check if it can provide flexibility, like features that
can adapt to changing the products.
Accuracy and Precision
Precision and Accuracy does not mean the same thing, though they are often related.
Accuracy is the quality or state of being correct or while the precision is the ability of the
sensor to notice small changes (As an example, a temperature sensor that measures the
normal body as 35.999°C has high precision but low accuracy)

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Another aspect to consider is the type of transportation that is needed (air, sea, land).
Suppose the sensor is used on an aircraft, for example. In that case, it must meet strict
regulatory and airline requirements to ensure that it doesn’t interfere with other portable
wireless electronic devices, airplane radio transmitters and wireless sensor networks.

Types of sensors
Proximity Sensors:
Proximity sensor is a sensor that is able to detect the presence of nearby objects without
any physical contact. Proximity sensors often emits an electromagnetic field or beam of
electromagnetic radiation (infrared) and looks for change in the field or return signal. The
object being sensed is often referred to as the proximity sensor target. Types of proximity
sensors;
➢ Inductive

➢ Capacitive

➢ Optical

➢ Ultrasonic
Inductive proximity sensor
An Inductive proximity sensor is a type of non-contact electric proximity sensor that is
used to detect the presence and position of metallic objects. Inductive proximity sensor
is shown in figure below. Their operating principle is based on a coil and high frequency
oscillator that creates a field in the close surroundings of the sensing surface. The
presence of metal in the operating area causes a change in the oscillation amplitude. This
change is identified by a threshold circuit, which changes the output of the sensor. The
operating distance of the sensor depends on the coil’s size as well as the target’s shape,
size and material. The sensing range is rarely greater than 6 cm, however, and it has no
directionality.

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Applications:
➢ Common applications of inductive sensors include metal detectors, car washes and a
host of automated industrial processes.
➢ Because the sensor does not require physical contact it is particularly useful for
applications where access presents challenges or where dirt is prevalent.
Ultrasonic proximity sensor
Ultrasonic sensors are sometimes used in place of optical sensors. Instead of using a light
beam, a high frequency sound wave is used. This sound wave is above normal hearing
frequencies and are called ultrasonic. Frequencies around 40KHz are common.
Subsonic sound: 20Hz
Sonic Sound :20Hz-20KHz
Ultrasonic Sound: > 20KHz
Working principle: The sensor first emits a short Ultrasonic Pulse

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When the echo returns, the sensor detects the target’s presence by measuring the time
delay between transmitted pulse and the return echo, then calculates the distance
between sensor and the object.

Applications:
➢ Ultrasonic sensors can measure the distance of a wide range of objects

➢ Liquid Level Control/Monitoring

➢ Trash Level Monitoring

➢ Used in production Lines

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➢ Vehicle detection for car washes, automotive assembly, and parking garage.
Force Sensor (Load Cell)
Basic Principle of Strain gauge load cell: when steel cylinder is subjected to a force, it
tends to change in dimension. On this cylinder, if the strain gauges are bonded, the strain
gauge also is stretched or compressed, causing a change in its length and diameter. The
change in dimension of the strain gauge causes its resistance to change. The change in
resistance or output voltage of the strain gauge becomes a measure of applied force.
Construction
The main parts of the strain gauge load cell are shown in figure below. They are a cylinder
made up of steel on which four identical strain gauge are mounted and out of four strain
gauges, two of them (R1 and R4) are mounted along the direction of the applied load
(vertical gauges). The other two strain gauges (R2 and R3 Horizontal gauges) are mounted
circumferentially at right angles to gauges R1 and R4.

Operation of strain gauge Load cell

The four gauges are connected in the form of bridge to convert the change in resistance
to voltage as shown below, the output voltage Vout is given by

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Case 1: when there is no load (force) on the steel cylinder, all the four gauges will have the
same resistance. Hence the wheat stone bridge is balanced and hence the output voltage
will be zero.
That is, Vout = 0
Case 2: now, the load (force) to be measured (say compression force) is applied on the steel
cylinder. Due to this, the vertical gauges R1 and R4 will undergo compression and hence
there will be a decrease in resistance. At the same time, the horizontal gauges R2 and R3
will undergo tension and there will be an increase in resistance. Thus, when strained, the
resistance of the gauges change. Then the wheat stone bridge is unbalanced and hence the
output voltage will not be zero.
That is, Vout ≠ 0
Now the change in output voltage due to the applied load (force) becomes a measure of the
applied load force when calibrated.
Applications:
➢ Vehicle Weigh Bridges

➢ Tension measurement of wires

Microcontroller
Microcontroller is an integrated electronic computing device that has three major
components on a single chip. The major components are;
• Microprocessor (MPU)

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• Memory
• I/O (Input/Output) ports
The figure below shows the basic blocks of a microcontroller;

Microprocessor
Microprocessor is an integrated electronic computing device that has Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU), Control Unit and Register array or Simply CPU on a single IC. It takes digital
data as input, process the data and gives digital data as output. That is, microprocessor
consists of an ALU, register array and a control unit. ALU performs arithmetical and logical
operations on the data received from the memory or an input device. Register array

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consists of registers identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L and accumulator. The control
unit controls the flow of data and instructions within the computer.

Input Devices: provide binary information to the MPU

Examples: Switches and Keypads
Output devices: Receive binary information from the MPU
Examples: LEDs and LCDs
Memory: Storage Device
Major Categories:
– Read/Write Memory (R/W)
– Read-Only-Memory (ROM)
Features of a Microprocessor

Some of the most prominent features of any microprocessor are:

• Cost-effective − the microprocessor chips are available at low prices.

• Size − the microprocessor is of small size chip, hence is portable.
• Low power consumption − microprocessors are manufactured by using metaloxide
semiconductor technology which has low power consumption.
• Versatility − microprocessors are versatile as we can use the same chip in a number
of applications by configuring the software program.
• Reliability − the failure rate of an IC in microprocessors is very low, hence, it is
reliable.
List of terms used in a microprocessor

Some of the frequently used terms in a microprocessor are:

• Instruction Set − it is the set of instructions that the microprocessor can

understand.
• Bandwidth − it is the number of bits processed in a single instruction.

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 • Clock Speed − it determines the number of operations per second, the processor
can perform. It is expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz). It is also known
as clock rate.
• Word Length − it depends upon the width of internal data bus, registers, ALU, etc.
An 8-bit microprocessor can process 8-bit data at a time. The word length ranges
from 4 bits to 64 bits depending upon the type of the microcomputer.
• Data Types − The microprocessor has multiple data type formats like binary, BCD,
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), signed and unsigned
numbers.
Applications of Microprocessor
It finds numerous applications in:

(i) computer systems

(ii) mobile phones

(iii) remote controlling devices

(iv) Climate controlling

(v) Security applications

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Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontrollers

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