Govt. T.

Romana College, Aizawl

Descriptive notes on Political Theory

Unit I

 Political Theory – Meaning, Scope and Significance

 Approaches to the Study of Political Theory
 Traditional
 Marxist
 Behavioral
 Post Behavioral
Q. What is/define Political theory? Discuss the scope of political theory (2019, 2016, 2015)

Ans: Meaning of Political theory

Political theory is a major branch of Political Science which concerned with political ideas and
ideologies. Political Theory is traditionally normative in content and according to G. H. Sabine it
contains three elements – 1) factual statement 2) what is likely to happen and 3) what ought to
happen. Study in political theory involves an endeavour to understand and experience the political
realities of the given society. This process includes a study of evolution and nature of the state,
composition, necessity and purpose of the political institutions and also evaluation of their moral
philosophical purpose.

Scope/Aim of political theory

The scope of political theory can also be understood from the kind of different political issues
which had been dominant during different period. The scope/aim of political theory very diverse
which can be summed, as follows:

1) First, the philosophical questions that are normative and conceptual has its foundation in
the Classical political theory was primarily concerned with the search for a perfect political
order. The basic issues of political theory is to analyse the nature and purpose of the state,
political authority, political obligation and political disobedience. It was more concerned
with what the state ought to be i.e. the ideal state.

2) Second, empirical and analytical relating to explanation and understanding which has been
established with the rise of modern nation-state and the industrial revolution gave birth to
a new kind of society, economy and polity.
3) Third, modern political theory starts from individualism and made individual liberty as the
basic issue. Hence it concerned with issues like rights, liberty, equality, property and justice
for the individual, and a right to change the government.

4) Fourthly, after the second world war, the empirical political theory shifted the emphasis
from concepts to the political behaviour of man. It invented a number new issues largely

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Descriptive notes on Political Theory

connected from other social sciences. Some of the important issue of empirical political
theory were authority, legitimacy, elite, party, group, social capital, political culture etc.
5) Fifth, during the last two/three decades, number of different issues have come to dominate
the scene of political theory. With the resurgence of value-based political theory, there is
once again an emphasis on the issues of freedom, equality and justice. Also, some new
issues have come to dominate the scene such as feminism, environmentalism,
communitarian, developmental issues, subaltern studies, etc.

With the growth of the discipline and the relation with other discipline, the monotonous view of
each concept of political theory today is found inadequate. This gave rise to movement to
reinterpret the theoretical understanding of the modern political process. During the last three
decades, political theory is trying to redefine and refine the issues of liberty, equality and justice
in the context of ultimate values of common good.

Significance of political theory

According to David Held, the task of political theorist is really demanding because in the absence
of systematic study, there is a danger that politics will be left to the ignorant and self-seeking
people who only want to pursue it as power. Therefore, the significance of political theory lies
with encountering the immediate and potential problems of political life and to supply relevant
theory with an alternative course of action for common good and happiness.

The following are the significance of political theory -

1) It provides systematic thinking about the nature and purpose of state and government.
2) It helps us to establish a correlation between ideals and the socio-political phenomena.
3) It makes the individual aware of his rights and duties in the society.
4) It helps us to understand the nature of the socio-economic system and its problems like
poverty, violence, corruption, ethnicity etc.
5) Political theory helps us to evolve ways and means to change society either through reform
or revolution.
6) When political theory performs its function well, it is one of the most important instrument
for the advancement of humanity.
7) To imbibe people with correct theories may make them choose their goals and means
accurately so as to avoid disappointment in the end.

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Q. Nature of political theory

Nature/ Characteristics of Political theory

Political theory is an intellectual and moral creation of man. Generally, it is the speculation of a
single individual who is attempting to offer a theoretical explanation of the political reality i.e. the
phenomena of the state. The nature/characteristics of political theory are as follows -

First, Political theory is largely an attempt to seek the truth as the thinker sees it and it is usually
expressed through a treatise such as Plato’s Republic, Aristotle’s Politics, Hobbes’ Leviathan, or
Rawls’ A Theory of Justice.

Secondly, political theory contains an explanation of man, society and history. It probes the nature
of man and society by seeking the important political elements such as, what are the sources of
conflict in the society and how they can be resolved.

Thirdly, political theory is discipline based. It means that the theorist which seeks to explain the
state, can be a philosopher, historian, economist, theologian, sociologist, environmentalist, etc.
Thus we are confronted by a variety of political theories, each distinguished by a discipline on
which it is based.

Fourthly, political theory not only comprehends and explains the social and political reality but is
also actively engaged in hastening the process of history. As Laski put it, the task is not merely
one of description of what it is but also a prescription of what ought to be. Thus, Political theory
plays a dual role: to understand society and to suggest how to remove the imperfections.

And lastly, political theory also includes political ideology. There are number of ideologies in the
modern world such as liberalism, Marxism, socialism etc. All political theories from Plato to date
reflect a distinct ideology that includes a system of political values, institutions and practices which
a society tries to adopt as its ideal.

Q. Traditional Approaches to Political Theory

Ans: Definition/ Meaning of traditional approaches: Traditional approaches are value based
and has its foundation in classical political theory. These approaches put more emphasis on values
than facts and it was dominated by philosophy, history and law. This approaches had dominated
and continues to play important role in understanding political theory till 1900. Advocates of this
approaches believe that the study of political science cannot and should not be purely scientific.
They stated that in social science such as facts values are closely related with each other. In politics,
emphasis should not be on the facts but on the moral quality of political event. There are huge
number of traditional approaches such as philosophical, institutional, legal, and historical
approaches.

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Characteristics of Traditional approaches:

1. Traditional approaches are largely normative and stresses on the values of politics. In other
words, it was dominated by philosophical understanding of the society.
2. Emphasis is on the study of different political structures from different angles as there was
no clear distinction between philosophy, theology and political issues.
3. Traditional approaches made very little attempt to relate theory and research. Instead,
political theory was concerned with probing into issues, asking vital questions and serving
as a conscience keeper of politics.
4. This approached believed that common good was the good of the individual as part and
member of the society. Common good was more complete than the private good of the
individual.
5. The most important component of this approaches was the search for ideal state and most
stable form of government. State was considered a natural institution and the end of state
was the promotion of good life.
6. These approaches believe that since facts and values are closely interlinked, studies in
Political Science can never be scientific.
The traditional approach is speculative, normative and value-based. It is descriptive and non-
analytical. It lays emphasis on the study of legal and formal institutions. It attaches great
importance to certain norms or values and tries to judge the various institutions in accordance with
these norms. Therefore, the major traditional approaches include - the philosophical approach, the
historical approach, the legal approach and the institutional approach.

Different types of traditional approaches

1. Philosophical Approach: This approach is considered as the oldest concrete approach in

the field of political theory. The development of this approach can be traced back to the
times of the Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle. Leo Strauss was one of the main
supporter of the philosophical approach. He considered that “the philosophy is the quest
for wisdom and political philosophy is the attempt truly to know about the nature of
political things and the right or good political order.” It is mainly an ethical and normative
study of politics and, thus, idealistic. It addresses the problems of the nature and functions
of the state, citizenship, rights and duties etc. Political philosophy supports in establishing
a good political order.
2. Historical Approach: Historical approach focused on the historical factors like the age,
place and the situation in which it is evolved are taken into consideration. The supporters
of this approaches believed that without studying the past political events, institutions and
political environment it would be erroneous to analyse the present political events. Political
thinkers such as Machiavelli, Sabine and Dunning considered that politics and history are
closely related and the study of politics always should have a historical standpoint.

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3. Institutional Approach: This approach primarily deals with the formal features of
government and politics accentuates the study of the political institutions and structures.
Therefore, the institutional approach is concerned with the study of the formal structures
like legislature, executive, judiciary, political parties, interest groups, etc. The supporters
of this approach includes both ancient and modern political philosophers including
Aristotle, James Bryce, Bentley, Walter Bagehot, Harold Laski who had contributed to
develop this approach.
4. Legal Approach: Legal approach concerns that the state is the fundamental organization
for the formation and enforcement of laws. Therefore, this approach is concerned with the
legal process, legal bodies or institutions, justice and independence of judiciary. The
supporters of this approach are Cicero, Jean Bodin, Thomas Hobbes, Jeremy Bentham,
John Austin, Dicey and Sir Henry Maine. Particular Dicey’s Law of the Constitution (1885)
is the prefect example of this approach which is still relevant.
Critic of traditional approaches: The various traditional approaches have been disapproved for
being normative. These approaches were principled also as their concern went beyond how and
why political events happen to what ought to happen. In the later period, the modern approaches
have made an attempt to make the study of Political Theory more scientific and, therefore,
emphasize pragmatism.

Q. Marxist Approaches to political theory (2016)

Marxism as a political theory originated with the works of Marx and Engel, which has been
interpreted by many – revolutionaries, philosophers, theorist, economist, socialist, communist, etc.
Marxist thought had been engaged in the works of Gramci, Lukas, Lenin, Stalin, Rose Luxemburg,
Frankfurt School, Mao Tse Tung, Prabath Patniak, Usha Patniak, etc.

Karl Marx the profounder of Marxism being a revolutionary thinker did not merely explain the
circumstances of his time, but put forth a plan to change them as he said "Philosophers have sought
to interpret the world: what matters however is to change it”. For him, state is an instrument of the
ruling class. He vehemtly attacked state as an oppressive organisation which protects the private
property and the interests of the capitalist society (ruling class). Ultimately, sate has to be
overthrow to build a classless society.

The central theme of Marxist approaches to political theory is the mode of production (labour),
class division, class struggle, class domination, alienation, property relation, revolution, etc. It also
examines the nature of rights, liberty, equality, justice and democracy but concluded that these are
the prerogatives of the bourgeoisie in a capitalist society. True liberty and equality can be achieved
only in a classless and stateless society. Thus, Marxist political theory is preoccupied with the
establishment of a socialist state through violent revolution overthrowing the capitalist society.

The basic feature of Marxist approaches are as follows

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1) State and politics depend on socio-economic conditions of man and with the change in this
conditions, the forms of state and politics also will change.

2) The state belongs to the superstructures, laying emphasis on the roots. State is conceived
as an inevitable consequence of class contradictions. State is an instrument of class
exploitation and class oppression.
3) For Marx economy is the base and whoever own the mean of production dominates the
whole society. Marxist approach argued that the feudal state is unfit for protecting the
capitalist class. So, a capitalist state is needed. Thus, the form of government changes with
the change in the interest of the ruling class of given society.
4) The state expresses human alienation under rule of the capitalist society. Therefore, this
ruling class has to be overthrow by proletariat revolution and established ‘dictatorship of
the proletariat’ and finally communism which is true democracy.
5) The communist society eliminated all forms of alienation for the human individual, from
society and from humanity. It will finally eliminate state instrument and form a stateless
society.
Criticism –

Marxist approach has been strongly criticise for its approach to violent revolution. Moreover, with
the collapsed of the most successful communist state, USSR, Marxist ideology had been strongly
condemned and disintegrated. Another criticism is that, can there be an establishment of classless
and stateless society. If yes what will be the next stage. In the present situation, countries which
adopted Communist regime has also started liberalising its economy if not the internal politics.
Marxism in its rudimentary form will find it difficult to survive in the postmodern world which is
dominated neo-liberal ideas and crony capitalism.

Q. Behaviour(al)ism or Behavioural approach to political Theory (2015)

Ans: Meaning/ Definition:

Behaviouralism is a modern approach to political theory emerged as a reaction against the

traditional approaches. They are based on facts and empirical in nature. It is a movement in
political science which insist on analyzing only the observable behaviours of political actors. The
approaches turn away from the study of the philosophy of the constitution and how the state ‘ought
to be rule’ to the study of how the states were actually ruled by political actors. It study was based
on quantitative data by promoting importance on mass political behaviour at the expense of
studying elites. Behaviouralism in political science emerged in the 1940s, and it was dominant in
the United States until the early 1970s and is still influential.

The philosophical roots of behaviouralism can be traced in the writings of Comte and logical
positivism of Vienna Circle. According to David Easton, behaviouralism tries to reorganize
research in political science on the model of natural science. It focuses on the simple question ‘why
do people behave the way they do?’.
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According to E. Krikpatrick there are four characteristics of behavioralism –

1) It is a study of the individual behaviour. Instead of the political institutions, The behaviour
of the individual is analysed.
2) It is inter-disciplinary. Behavioralism can be studied only in relation with other disciplines
of social sciences. Therefore, they lay. emphasis on interdisciplinary method.
3) For analysis, it lays emphasis on the scientific method through the collection of statistics,
instead of facts, and their evaluation with scientific methods.
4) The behavioralists want to establish systematised pragmatic theory.
On the same line Sonit and Tenenhans have explained the following main bases of bahavioralism
in their essay named "The Behavioral Traditional Debate in Political Science".

1) It is capable of predicting.
2) Politics should concern itself primarily with observable behaviour, both individual and
group.
3) Data should be quantified. Every behaviour should be collected in such statistics which can
be measured and their conclusion may be drawn from various sides.
4) Its values are beyond the scope of measurement. e.g. democracy, liberty, equality and
justice, are beyond the limit of legitimate enquiry because such values cannot be
established as true or false on the basis of science.
5) Political Science should be more inter disciplinary.
From the above points it can be concluded that behavioural approach to political theory believes
that experience alone can be the basis of knowledge. It does not accept all the philosophical
argument unless proven with scientific explanations.

Criticism: Critic argue that normative theory cannot be discarded in entirety as fact itself is
meaningless in the absent of value framework. Both Popper and Hempel argued that even scientific
enquiry is possible if relevant facts are supported by theoretical explanations. Thus, it is argued
that without the support of other approaches behavioural approaches is bound to flaw in its concept.

Q. Post-behavioural approach to the study of political theory (2019, 2017)

Ans: Meaning/Definition:

Post-behaviouralism has been described as a genuine revolution in Political Science. It appeared

in the mid-1960. Post-behaviouralism is both a movement and intellectual tendency. As a
movement, it seeks to improve the quality of research by binding upon the existing behavioural
foundations. As an intellectual tendency, it is not associated with any particular ideology. It seeks
to make Political Science more relevant and action oriented by focusing on action-oriented
research relevant to social conditions. They put emphasis on social change. In their view, the

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behaviouralists have lost touch with the brute realities of politics. Post-behaviouralism originated
as a sign of increasing frustration with behavioural approach.

Among the foremost proponent of this approaches include Robert Dalh which published an essay,
‘The Behavioural Approach in Political Science: Epitaph for a Monument to a Successful Protest’.
His criticism of behaviouralism became a forerunner in the study of the post-behavioural
approaches in Political Science.

David Easton, in 1969, had come up with new approaches, post behaviouralism, that emphasises
less on the scientific method and empirical theory, but stresses on the public responsibilities of the
discipline. For Easton, the main features of the post-behaviouralism are:

1) Substance is more relevant than technique.

2) In time of crisis, behaviouralism itself has become ideologically conservative rather
than reality. Therefore, Political research must not lose touch with reality.
3) Political research must be based on facts and values.
4) Mad craze for scientism should be discarded.
5) The study of Political Science should be related not only to the past and the present
but also future-oriented.
6) The role of intellectuals in the society must be protect the humane values of
civilization.
7) The intellectual should not remains insular to social problems, but has to implement
his knowledge to the solution of the problems of society.
It must be noted that post- behaviouralism is not anti-behaviouralism, but an improvement on
behaviouralism. Moreover, with the emergence of new concepts like feminism, environmentalism,
ethnicity, etc. one cannot simply concentrate to rely on the single approaches of particular subject.
This gave rise to the approaches of post behaviouralsim or otherwise also called neo
behaviouralism.

Criticism: It has been criticised that the post- behaviouralism does not give any important place
to norms and values. It still had not been able to fully give up strong dependent on pure science. It
supports the existence of capitalist society in USA and thus, completely rejects Marxism that
developed alternate system for social change. However, it cannot be denied on the ground that
post-behaviouralism has rectified the limits of behavioural approaches to political theory.

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