Elements of Mining Technology-3 /'2.

1
The units, mass, force, weight, &basic definitions/1.50

6. What is S.I. system ? Name and define those units of S.I. system that ' M -
are different from those i n metric system as far as Mechanical
Engineering is concerned ?

7. Write short notes on

W D R K , E N E R G Y St P O W E R
(a) Unity brackets (d) Radian
(b) Vector (e) Centre of Gravity
(c) Column Vector (f) Equilibrium

8. State the theorem of traingle of forces ? what is

(a) an Equilibrant force
S.I. Units:
(b) a resultant force When a weight is lifted from the floor on to a table, work is done
•igainst the gravitational pull of the earth. I f a weight is pulled over a rough
9. There forces, F = 30 kgf, F = 40 kgf and F = 50 kgf act at a point.
•airface, work is done. I f y o u compress a spring, you do work against the
1 2 3

The angle between F and F is 45° and that between F and F is 60°.
x 2 2 3
flastic resitance of the spring. When steam pressure pushes a piston in a steam
Find the magnitude of the resultant, graphically and by calculation. '•ngine the steam does work on the piston.

(Ans.: 89 kgf at 60° to F, ) A force is said to do work w h e n its point of application moves i n any
'lirection not perpendicular to that of the force. If a weight of W Newtons is
lifted through a vertical height of H metres, the work done on the weight is
WH Newton meters. Work done is measured by the product of the force and
o a o
i he displacement in the direction of the applied force.
In Fig. 2.1 (left) i f a horizontal force of P units acting on a particle
moves it through a distance s from O to A i n the direction inclined at
6 to the axis OX, the displacement i n the direction of the force is
s x cos 0 and the work done is P x s cos 0. I n the S.I. units, the unit of
w o r k done is one Newton-
metre, which is also called
Joule and is the work done by
a force of 1 Newton when
moving through a distance of
1 metre. I n the C.G.S. system
the unit of work is an erg,
being the w o r k done by a
oh-5—
force of 1 dyne through a
displacement of 1cm i n the
direction of force.
Fig. 2.1

1 Joule = 10 x 1 0 = 10 ergs = 1 Newton-metre

5 2 7
 Elements of Mining Technology-3 / 2.3
Work. Energy & Power /2.2
When the cage is at the bottom of the shaft the total force required to
If a constant force P moves through a distance S the work done is PS lift the cage and the tope.
units and it can be represented by a rectangle w i t h P and S as the sides. If a = weight of cage + weight of 1000m of rope
force P moves a body through a small distance 8s, the work done is P 5s
= 4 kN + (10 x 1000) N = 14 kN.
(Fig. 2.1 right). The total work done by displacement of the variable force
through a distance is IP. 5s and is represented by the area under the force Total lifting force at the top of the shaft = weight of cage, 4 k N
displacement diagram. When the cage is at the bottom of the shaft i.e. at A, the lifting force
In Fig. 2.2 the force is a varying is 14KN. At point B, the top of the shaft, the lifting force is 4 KN.
one, shown by the line AB. The Workedone = Area beneath the line AB
work done is represented by the = Rectangle OCBD + triangle ABC
ZA area ABCD, is i n Newton-meter*
and = distance x average force
= (OC + OD) + \B x CA)
of AB.
Distance (M) = (4 x 1000) + i x 1000 x 10 k N m
Fig. 2.2 = 4000 + 5000
= 9000 M J
Example:
A cage including mine car of mineral weighs 4 kN and is wounded up
Work done by a torque :
i n a shaft 1000m deep. The winding rope weighs 10 N/metre length. Calculate
the work done i n raising the cage and rope. Neglect the rope length from tht If a weight W hung by a string coiled on a drum of radius R (Fig. 24)
shaft top to winding drum. descends as the drum completes 1 revolution, the
work done by the earth's gravity on the weight is
Ans. :
Depth of shaft = 1000 metres. 2% RW units. Neglecting losses this is also the
work done by the weight on the drum. Now O is
the pivot or fulcrum and RW is the twisting
moment or torque exerted on the drum and 27t is
the angle turned through in radians.
Fig. 2.4 Torque

Cage at top Work done by a constant torque = Torque x angle turned through i n
of shaft i.idians.
= T0
where the torque T = force x radius
and 0 = angle through which the force has moved (expressed in radians)
If T is quoted i n Newton-metres the work done is also i n Newtons
meres, i.e. Joules.
200 400 600 800
If the torque is not constant, but variable,
Distance in metres
Work done = average torque x 0
Fig. 2.3
 Work, Energy & Power/2.4
Elements of Mining Technology-3 / 2.5

Power: Example:
the rate of doing w o r k is called power. The word rate brings in an
A locomotive hauls a train of 250 tonnes on a level track at a uniform
element of time. Work is independent of time.
ipeed of 50 km/h. The frictional resistance is 6 kgf per tonne. Find the effective
If W = the amount of work done,
power expected.
t = time t o do that work,
P = the power to be exerted, then Ans.;

P= W Frictional resistance = 250 x 6 kgf

t
= 250 x 6 x 9.81 Newtons
Thus if A performs some work i n a given time and B performance th«
same quantity of work i n a shorter time, B's rate of doing work is more; i i Speed of train = 50 km/h = 13.9 m/s.
other words, B is stronger and possess more power than A. In S.I. system As the track is leveled and the speed is uniform, no force is required
unit of power is watt (abbreviation W) so that to overcome gravity or to cause acceleration, and the only resistance t o
w o r k done (in Newton - meters) overcome is that due to friction.
power (in watts)=
time (in seconds)
Force required to overcome friction = 250 x 6 X 9 X 9.81 N
Joules
Power to be expended = 250 x 6 x 9.81 x 13.9 watts.
Seconds

A vehicle travelling at v m/s along a level road against a tractivi 250x6x9.81x13.9

Power required i n kW =
resitance R newtons requires Rv watts to maintain this motion. 1000
The watt is rather too small unit for engineering purposes and powef
is more conveniently expressed i n kilowatts (kW); l k W = 1000 watts. T h i = 204.5 k W
commonly used term, horsepower, has the following relation w i t h watt.
1 horsepower = 746 watts.
Power developed by a constant torque
Example:
Work done by a constant torque = T6
Find the power that a pump has to develope to pump 2000kg of wat€ where T is the torque i n Nm and 0, the angle turned through, (expressed
per min. to a height of 50 meters. Neglect losses and take g = 9.8 m/s . 2

in radians) during t seconds.

Aits.:
Work done i n lifting 2000 kg T0
Power developed by a constant torque = —
= 2000 x 9.8 x 50 Nm
= 980,000 Joules
But — is the angular velocity of rotation, (0, and therefore, the power
_ . . 980,000 Joules ,, O A n

Power required = — = 16,300 watts

developed by a constant torque = To).
60 seconds
= 16.3 kW
 Work, Energy & Power/2.6 Elements of Mining Technology-3 /2.7
Example:
Find the constant torque provided by the shaft of an electrical motor
if it developes 8.5 kW at 1400 rpm.

Ans.:
8.5 kW = 8500 W = 8500 J/s or 8500 Nm/s

2n 440
Angular velocity co, rad/s = 1400 x — = rad/s
60 3
P = Tw
_ P 8500 x 3 XT

T =— = Nm
co 440
= 58 Nm
•Weight

Brake H.P. and indicated H.P. Fig. 2.5 Dynamometer

Though the word horse power is not used in the S.I. systems i t will The output or breake H.P. of an engine or a motor (upto about 150
continue to be used in the engineering industry and by the engineering students H.P.) may be determined experimentally by some form of braking system.
for some years. Hence the name brake horse power or brake power. This braking system
replaces the machinery which the motor or engine normally drives. Fig. 2.5
1 H. P. = 746 watts. shows one simple form of friction brake.
So that 1 kW. = 1.34 H.P. (approx) The drum or pulley is fixed to the output shaft. Around the drum is a
rope (or ropes) attached, at one end to a spring balance. The rope is well
The maximum H.P. which a motor or engine is capable of developing lubricated manila rope of 25 m m diam. The r i m of the drum should be quite
is called its I.H.P. The complete I.H.P. is not available at the crank shaft of the smooth. If more than 1 rope is used, to keep the ropes i n position a number of
reciprocating engine or the motor shaft of an electric motor as some of the wooden blocks or distance pieces are attached to the r i m as shown i n the 1

power developed is utilised in overcoming losses of friction at bearings, enlarged section.

resistance to wind, etc. i n the engine or motor itself. The residual power 'Weights' are suspended from the other end of the rope and hang
available at the motor shaft or crank shaft and which can be used for operation freely. They are secured to the floor by a loose chain as a safety precaution
against 'snatching'. When the drum revolves, the friction force that it exerts on
of the connected machinery is called the brake H.P. of the engine. It is the
the rope supports part of the suspended mass M so that the spring balance
output power of the engine/motor. reading is reduced. The effective force opposing motion is therefore W-S where
W is the down ward pull and S is the spring balance reading. The effective
B.H.P. = I.H.P - H.P. lost due to friction, etc.
radius R is measured to the centre of the rope. (Because friction between the
inside the engine/motor rope and drum generates heat the drum is water-cooled if the engine or motor
runs for some time).
BHP
Efficiency of a machine = ' x 100 The work done against friction during one revolution.
I.H.P.
= (W-S) 271R.
 Work, Energy & Power/2.8 Elements of Mining Technology-3/2.9

If the speed of rotation is n rev/s, Example:

work done per second = ( W - S ) 2n Rn. A steam engine w i t h a single cylinder has a cylinder dia. of 250mm
This expression gives us a measure of the output. and a piston stroke of 300 mm. The
average steam pressure on the
Example: piston is 480 kN/m and the piston 2

makes 120 working strokes per

During a test on a gas engine to determine its power, it was found
min.
that the speed of the brake .drum was 350 rev/min, the suspended mass was 25
kg. and the spring balance reading 44 N. The effective radius of drum and Calculate:
rope was 0.6 m. Determine the brake power of the engine for this condition. (a) the average force on the piston,
Ans.: (b) the work done on the piston,
The work done against friction during one rev. Stm. pressure 480 kN/m^ (c) the power developed.
= (W-S) 2nR, Fig. 2.6

where W = downward pull i n Newtons,

Ans:
S = Spring balance reading i n Newtons
(a) Force on the piston = Average steam pressure x crossectional
R = effective radius to the centre of the rope i n meters. area of the piston
If the speed of rotation is n rev/s,
-i2
work done per second = (W - S) 2rt Rn. 250
= 480 x - xl0 N 3

In the above example 4 1000

Break power = (25 x 9 . 8 1 - 4 4 ) 2n x 0.6 x 350/60

_ 480 x n x 62500 x 1 0 3

= 4.4 KW. N
4xl0 6

Example: = 23571.42 N
Find the brake power of an engine from the readings below:
(b) The Piston moves through a stroke distance of 300mm, i.e. the
Load M = 100 kgf; balance reading m = 15 kgf;
piston force moves through a distance of 300mm per stroke.
Speed = 1200 r.p.m., brake dia. = 30 cm.

Ans.: 300
Work done per stroke = 23571.42 x N m

Force on the brake = (100 - 15) kgf;

= 85 x 9.81 N = 7071.426 N m
(c) No. of strokes per. m i n = 120
Work done per sec. = 85 x 9.81 X n X 0.3 x Joules
Worke done per min. = 7071.426 x 120 N m
60
= 15700 J Work done per sec. = 7 0 7 1 ^ 6 x 1 2 0 =

1 Joule per sec = 1 Watt 60

Power = 15. 7 kW. Power = 14.143kW

 Work, Energy & Power/2.10 Elements of Mining Technology-3 /2.11

Energy : explosive is changed to mechanical energy for breaking rocks. The potential
energy in the water of a reservoir changes into kinetic energy when the water
Energy of a body is its capacity for doring work. We have seen that falls to a lower level and into mechanical energy of a turbine which rotates as
work is done when a force moves through a distance; power is the rate of the water impinges on it w i t h high velocity. This mechanical energy derived
doing work. Work, power and energy are, therefore, closely related. A body from water is converted into electrical energy i n a hydro-electric power station
may posses capacity for doing work because of its position, its motion, its when the turbine rotates an armature in the alternator. Fig. 2.7 shows some of
construction or because of the process it has undergone. A spring of a watch the ways i n which energy in one form can be changed into energy into another
possesses stored energy when it undergoes the process of winding and i t is form.
then capable of releasing that stored energy over 24-36 hours. A rifle bullet
The original source of all energies is the sun and its heat energy is
does work when it strike a target; a hammer does work when it hits a nail; the
bullet and the hammer possess energy because of their motion, petrol, coal provided by the nuclear reactions on its surface. These nuclear reactions take
and explosives possess chemical energy because of their "construction", ie. the place continually and the sun is, therefore, considered, according to the present
manner in which they have been formed. Every person requires energy for doing thinking, an inexhaustible source of energy.
his normal work and usual movements liek walking breathing, writing, etc. Various experiments by scientists have established one fact; no matter
how good is an energy-changing device, we can never destroy or create energy
and this important fact is embodied i n the "Principle of conservation of energy".
According to the principle of conservation of energy, energy can neither be
created nor destroyed; it can only be changed from one form i n to another, the
energy does work, some of which is noticeable and useful but some may be
less useful. For example, in an electric motor the energy input is the electrical
energy but the useful output energy is the mechanical energy available from
the motorshaft driving, say, a drilling machine and the less useful form of
energy is the heat generated which is ultimately wasted. The heat represents a
loss which is unavoidable. With any energy-changing device the energy output

i • ^rr. . energy output .

is always less than the energy input and its Efficiency = :in a
energy input
given time.

Potential energy :
The potential energy of a particle is the work which the forces acting
on i t w o u l d do if it moved from its actual position to some standard position."
Fig. 2.7 Transformation of original solar energy into various forms.
Thus i f a particle of mass M kg is at a height h meters above the
This energy he gets from the oxygen inhaled and the food consumed. ground, and we take the ground as the standard position, its potential energy
Your "automatic" wrist watch which needs no winding, keeps running by virtue
is the w o r k that w o u l d be done by the force of gravity M g newtons moving
of the energy it receives and stores in its main spring from the movements of
through h meters, that is, Mgh Joules. The word potential suggests something
the wrist. It will be realised that energy in one form can be changed into
energy in another form. The chemical energy i n a battery of a motor car can that is not being used but is available for use.
be changed into electrical energy to drive its starter-motor or produce an The potential energy of a rigid body of mass M is Mgh, where h is the
electric spark that jumps across the spark plugs. The chemical energy of an height of its centre of gravity above some standard position or datum.
 Elements of Mining Technology-3 / 2.13
Work, Energy & Power/2.12
Example:
The potential energy of a particle or a body usually involves the force
of gravity but such thing as a stretched spring has a potential energy realted to A bullet of mass 5 gramms has a speed of 500 m/s. What is the
internal forces of ealsticity. I n the case of a compressed spring, or a stretched kinetic energy ? How far w i l it penetrate a wooden block i f the latter offers a
spring the potential energy is the work which would be done i n restoring i t to constant resistance of 1 kN to the motion of the bullet ?
its natural shape.
Ans.:

Kinetic energy:
Mass of the bullet is 5 grammes i.e. —— kg.
. The kinetic energy of a particle of mass M moving w i t h velocity v is 1000 6

defined as the quantity — Mv .

K.E. of the bullet is ^ M v
2
2

The kinetic energy of a rigid body of mass M moving i n such a way

that all particles of the body have the same velocity v, is the quantity Mv . = I x ^ x 5 0 0 y = ^
( = 625J
2
2 1000 ' v4

If a particle moves i n a straight line w i t h constant acceleration f If is the distance of penetration,

through a distance s and i n that distance its velocity is increased from its Work done by the bullet against resistance of wood
initial value u to its final value v, we have
= 100 x s joules
v = u + 2fs
2 2
This energy for doing work has come from the K.E. of the bullet.
and hence 625 = 1000 s
s = 0.625 m
- M v - - M u = Mfs
2 2

2 2
If P is the force causing the acceleration f P = Mf
Sum of P.E. and K . E . is constant:
1 0 1 9
and we have - M v - - M u = Ps
z z - - - (1) Let a body of mass M be placed at a night of H from the ground level.

Since the force P is along the direction of motion, Ps is the work done M Potential energy = MgH

i n the displacement and hence equation (1) shows that The Kinetic energy of the body is zero.

Change i n linear kinetic energy = work done — (2)

H P .E. + K.E. = M g H - - - (1)
If a body of mass moment of inertia I, rotates with angular velocity co
When the body falls freely, i.e. under the
it has an angular kinetic energy of — Ico = — M K co where K is radius ol
2 2 2 action of earth's gravity, to the ground level.
at the ground level RE. = 0 since H is zero
gyration, and M is its mass.
Fig. 2.8
If a body has both linear and angular motion, e.g. the road wheel of
a moving car, then the body has total kinetic energy which is the sum of the
linear and angular kinetic energies, Hence. and K.E. = - M v 2

Total K.E. = j M v 2 +1 Ico 2

Now v = u + 2gH = 2gH since u = 0
2 2
 Work, Energy & Power /2.14 Elements of Mining Technology-3 /2.15

In the case of rotary motion also, any body by virtue of its own property
K.E. =^Mx 2gH = MgH tends to rotate about an axis w i t h a uniform angular velocity and this inertial

RE. + K.E. = O + MgH = MgH - - - (2) effect about the axis of rotation is called the moment of Inertia (I). It is also
referred to as mass moment of inertia.
This shows that the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy is
constant for a given body w i t h respect to any assumed datum.
T
Mathematically, I = —
Example:
Find (i) the work done i n lifting a mass of 5kg to a height of 10m and oc

(ii) the kinetic energy of a mass of 5 kg which has falls from rest through a
where T = Torque, <>= = angular acceleration
height of 10m. ,

Ans.: and I = Moment of inertia.

(i) Work = Force x distance covered i n direction of force

It can also be shown that
= (5 x 9.81) N x 10 m
= 490.5J I = mr 2

(ii) Velocity v after falling 10m is given by the formula where I is the moment of inertia of a particle of mass m moving i n a

v = u +2gh
2 2
circle of radius r from its axis of rotation. A revolving body consists of many

- = O + 2 x 9.81 m/s x 10m 2

small particles, each at a different radius from the axis of r o t a t i o n
(see Fig. 1.2) and the sum of the effect of these has to be calculated by adding
= 196.2
up all the separate m r terms.
2

K.E. = 1- M
™v 2 z
or I = Zmr 2

2
= MK 2

= -x5kgxl96.2
2 & Where K is called the radius of gyration and M = Total mass of the
= 490.5 J. body. The radius of gyration is the radius to that point i n the body where the
If a body possesses any other from of energy in addition to potential total mass of a rotating body is supposed to be concentrated.
and kinetic energy the sum total of all such energies remain constant and this
_fact is stated i n Bernoulli's theorem which is explained further i n the chapter The moment of inertia depends not only on the masses of partciles of
on Pumping. which the body is composed but also their distances from the axis of rotation.
The moment of inertia of a body about the axis of rotation is constant and for
Moment of inertia and radius of gyration :
the same body the moment of inertia is different for different axis of rotation.
From Newton's First Law, we know that any "body" has an inherent It has same value irrespective of the state of mot»or of a body. Unit for moment
property to keep its state of rest or of uniform motion along a straight line
of inertia is kg m .2

Unless it gets compelled by some external force to change its state. This property
of the body is called inertia, as explained earlier, and often referred to as mass
moment of inertia.
 Work, Energy & Power/2.16 Elements of Mining Technology-3/2.17

M o m e n t s o f I n e r t i a a n d r a d i u s g y r a t i o n of s o m e b o d i e s :
Therefore T = I ^ " C D ? )
Description Axis of rotation 29
M.I. Radius of
gyration
and T9 =il(to -to )=iMK 2 2 2 (a) -co )
2 2

Thin uniform rod of Through its centre

I i.e. work done on a body by torque T = increase i n K.E. (angular) of

Ml
mass M, length I
2
and perp. to its length the body.
12 Vl2
do Through its end and Compare this w i t h the relationship :

Work done by a force = increase i n linear K. E. of a body.

MZ 2 1
prep, to its length
3 S Example:
Thin ring of mass M Through its centre MR 2 R
and radius R A flywheel of mass 5 kg and radius 20cm, initially at rest, is subjected
and perp. to its plane
to constant torque so that its angular velocity after 5 sec. is 25 rad/sec. Calcualte
MR R the angular acceleration and torque.
Circular disc of mass M
2
do
2 S Ans.:
and radius e
Right cylinder do do do In such examples of flywheel, a flywheel may be treated as a circular
disc of mass M and radius R so that the moment of inertia is given by the
Hollow sphere (shell) coinciding w i t h its -MR 2

3 formula I = - , where M is its mass and R the actual radius. Some flywheels
of mass M and radius R diameter
have thin spokes and the mass is concentrated at the periphery. I n that case
radius of gyration has to be calculated from a separate formula.
Solid sphere of mass M do -MR 2

5 In this example M = 5 kg; R = 20 cm = 0.2m

and radius R
d) = 0 ;
0 co = 25 rad/s; t = 5 s

MR 5x0.2x0.2
Angular E . E . and work done by torque : Moment of Inertia, I =
2

= = 0.1 kgm
3

2 2
We have seen that the work done by a constant torque T is given by
To calculate angular acceleration :
the relationship.
Using the first equation of motion
Work done = T 9 = torque x angle of rotation (radius)
o = co + °=t 0

Let a rotating body having moment of inertia I , be subjected to a

constant torque T, and let the angular velocity increase from cOj to co while 2 CO - C0 o 25-0 _ , 2

rotating through angle 8. a = - = = 5 rad/s

t 5
Now T = I oc and to - (Dj = 2 °c 0
22 2
Torque, T = I<* = 0.1 x 5 = 0.5 N m
. Work, Energy & Power/2.18 Elements ofMinirig Technology-3 / 2.19
Example:
Energy of rotation and flywheel:
A solid sphere of mass 10 kg and radius 5 cm is rotating uniformly A reciprocating engine or an electric motor is often connected to a
load which is of a fluctuating nature, where the peak demand is much higher
about its diameter. If i t performs 120 r.p.m., calculate its (a) kinetic enegy
than the average demand. Suppose the load is such that the peak demand is
and (b) angular momentum.
1.8 kW, the average demand is l k W and the m i n i m u m is about 0.7kw.
Ans.: It w o u l d be most uneconomical to provide a motor of, sav, 2kW if this power
potential is used only at intervals. It w o u l d be far more sensible to provide a
M = 10kg ; R = 5cm = 0.05m motor of power slightly i n excess of the average demand, say, a motor of 1.2
120 r.p.m. = 2 r.p.s. kW. Such motor can meet the peak power demand i f some device is provided
to Wor^ as a storehouse of energy so that when the energy supply exceeds the
angular velocity co = 2n X 2.r.p.s = 4n rad/s demand, the excess energy can remain stored i n the device and the excess .
"stored" energy can be used when the energy demand exceeds the supply. Such
». : C T T2 . _ 22x5x0.05x0.05 device is a flywheel. A flywheel is a large, heavy-rimmed wheel secured to the
Moment of Inertia, I = — M R = Z
crankshaft of a reciprocating engine or the shaft of an electric motor or prime
' 5 5 inover. Its function is to maintain an approximately equal rate of motion
= 0.005 k g m 2
among the moving parts of the engine during each complete revolution. I t
accomplishes this task by slightly increasing i n speed and so storing up kinetic
(a) Kinetic energy E = i Ico = i x 0.005 x (4nf
2 = 0.394J energy when the turning effort or torque is a maximum, ie. when the connecting
rod is approximately at right-angles to the crank, and by slightly decreasing
(b) Angular momentum Ico = 0.005 x 4rc its speed to give up its excess of energy when the torque is minimum, ie. when
the piston-rod, connecting rod, and crank are approximately i n line. This
' ^ = 0.0628 kg m /s 2
variation i n speed is invetitable i f the flywheel is to serve any useful purpose,
• After an understanding of linear and rotational motions the following but it is only a small variation, depending on the mass of the wheel and on the
analogy i n a summarised form should be noted: energy fluctuation required i n the machine concerned to maintain the speed
within the desired limit.
Linear motion Rotational motion
If the shaft of a flywheel rotates at N r.p.m. the angular velocity of the
Linear displacement, s Angular displacement, 9
flywheel, co = ^ rad / s. The kinetic energy of rotation of the flywheel is then.
Velocity, v Angular velocity, co
Acceleration, f Angular acceleration, a E = Joules.
Mass, M Moment of inertia, I 2
where I is the moment of inertia i n kg - m I = MK , i f M is mass i n kg2 2

(I = E m r ) .
2
and K is radius of gyration i n meters.
Force, F or P Torque, T
It is convenient to express i t in terms of the shaft r.p.m., N
Force = M x f Torque = I x «
„ Ico 2 1 An - 2 t 2 4JI I
2 • 2
T .- 2 .
R T

Kinetic energy = —Mv E = = —x N = x N = M N , where

2 Kinetic energy = Ico2
2 2 2 3600 7200
Work done = Ps Work done = T9 4n l
2

Momentum = MV Angular momentum = Ico M = „2QQ LS a c o n s t a n t f° r a given flywheel. This M should not

l>e confused w i t h M used for mass i n this book.

 Work, Energy & Power/2.20 Elements of Mining Technology-3 / 2.21

From the expression E = M N , i t is clear that for a given speed, th

2
Example:
larger the " M " of the flywheel the greater is the energy stored by it. The object
The shaft of an electric motor rorates at 900 r.p.m. and it is brought
i n fitting a heavy flywheel to an engine w i l l now be clear. It is evident however
to rest i n 15 complete revolutions by a braking torque. If the constant frictional
that i n the case of a rotating flywheel, the velocity varies for each particle of
torque i n the bearings is 200 N m through out and the moment of Inertia of the
the wheel according to its distance from thecentre of rotation. The velocity of
shaft is 50 Kg m , what is the magnitude of the breaking torque ?
2

the outer circumference f the r i m , for example, is much greater than that of
the hub of the flywheel and the kinetic energy stored up by the outer parts of Ans.:
the wheel is thus greater than that stored up by those nearer the centre. For Angular velocity of the shaft, co
this reason flywheels are usually designed w i t h a heavy r i m and w i t h their
spokes or central disc joining the r i m to the hub as light as possible consistent = 2 tx900
7 = 2x22 900x = 9 4 2 5 r a d / s

w i t h adequate strength. 60 7 60
Rims of some flywheels have flat circumferencial surface : To The K.E. of rotation at this speed is
accommodate flat belts but some have grooved rims for V-belts. Spokes of
some flywheels may be i n the form of blades which work like a fan and throw
ambient cool air on the engine, thereby cooling it. 1^ = ^ x (94.25)?Joules = 222076 J

This K.E. is absorbed by the breaking and frictional torque i n 15

complete revolutions. If B is the breaking torque, the work absorbed by the
two torques.
= (B + 200) x angle turned through
= (B + 200) x 2?t x 15 Joules.
(B + 200) x 30n = 50/2 x (94.25) 2

(B + 2 0 0 ) = ^ Z ^ = 2356 Nm
v ' 30it
.-. B = 2156 N m

Example:

A lift of mass 610 kg is attached to a rope passing over a d r u m of

effective diameter 1.25m, radius of gyration 560mm and mass 54kg, and
from there to a balancing mass of460 kg. Find the torque that must be applied
to the drum to raise the lift w i t h an acceleration of 0.9 m/s . Neglect weight of 2

the rope and friction i n the system.

Ans.:
In an example of this nature there are three actions involved.
(a) the lift must be accelerated upwards.
(b) balancing mass must be accelerated downwards.
Fig. 2.8 A. The flywheel on the right has grooves to carry V-ropesfor transmission
(Picture of a vertical compressor model N3 ofKirloskar Pneumatic Co.). (c) The drum has to be accelerated.
 Work. Energy & Power /2.22 Elements of Mining Technology-3 /'2.23

(a) acceleration of the lift upwards. then T = W = M K <* 2

Tension T in the rope = Force to support lift + force to accelerate.

X
T 815
= 1.105 r a d / s '
= 610 x 9.81 + 610 x 0.9 MK 2 910 x (0.9f
a rad/s 2
= 6533 N.
Now co = co, + <= t but co, = 0.
2

(b) downward acceleration of balancing

mass.
Tension T i n the rope
2

= Force W to support balancing mass -

2

K = 5&) mm
force to accelerate it. - ~ = 28.4 seconds.
X

f =
1.105
= 460 x 9 . 8 1 - 4 6 0 x 0.9
9m/s
= 4098N.
2

f = Governor :
9m/s 2
Torque required on the drum for the lift and
the balance mass
A governor is a device that keeps a machine or an engine at a mean
= C^-TJ x R
steady, speed over a long period, regardless of the changes i n load.
= ( 6 5 3 3 - 4 0 9 8 ) X 0.625 = 1522 Nm.
A common type governor consists of a sleeve, a vertical spindle passing
(c) Torque to accelerate drum
through the sleeve and connected to t w o weights i n the form of balls through
= I oc = M K °c (M is mass)
2
hinged arms. The sleeve carries a weight on i t and is connected to the balls at
their lower ends by hinged arms. The spindle is driven through gearing by the
0.9 main shaft of the engine or machine. When the engine shaft and the spindle of
= 1.44 rad/s 2

0.625 the governor rotates at a fast speed the balls move outwards away from the
Fig. 2.9 spindle, because of the centrifugal force; when the engine shaft slows down,
Accelerating torque = 54 x 0.56 X 1.44 = 24.39 Nm.
2 the balls drop inward. When the balls move outward, the sleeve travels up and
Total torque required = 1522 + 24.39 = 1546.4 Nm. when they move inward the sleeve travels down. This movement of the sleeve,
through linkages, regulates the addmission of steam to a steam engine and
admission of fuel to a petrol or diesel engine so that the speed of the engine is
Example:
kept nearly constant w i t h i n certain limits. Some governors use a spring i n
A torque of 815 N m acts on a flywheel of mass 910 kg and radius place of the weighted sleeve, e.g. Hartnell governor. When an engine is required
0.9m. Find the time required for the flywheel to reach a speed of 5 rev/s .to work against a heavy load, i t slows down so that the balls drop inward and
from start. admit more fuel to the engine, just as a car driver pushes down the accelerator
to maintain speed when going uphill.If the load on the engine becomes less, it
Ans. :
tends to race, the balls move outward from the spindle and w i t h the help of
If T = torque, M = mass, linkages reduce supply to fuel to the engine. Most governors are controlled by
I = moment of inertia, a hand lever that fixes the speed at which the governor w i l l hold the engine.
«= = angular acceleration New cars and trucks generally have governers on their engines.
 Work, Energy & Power/2.24 Elements of Mining Technology-3 / 2.25

For calculating the work done per stroke by the piston of a reciprocating
engine, e.g. i n a gas engine, i n a steam engine, etc. use is made of indicator
diagrams. I n such diagram, any point on the diagram indicates the pressure
on the piston and the distance travelled by the latter at any instant so that the
area of the diagram gives the amount of work done i n one stroke. (Fig. 2.11).
In a double acting engine work is done by the piston in the forward as well as
backward travel and there w i l l be two diagrams, one for the forward travel
and the other for the backward travel. For a steam engine the indicator diagram
is drawn by a steam indicator shown schematically i n Fig. 2.12.

The steam Indicator

A steam indicator comprises a small cylinder, C, i n which there is a
piston, P, whose vertical position is regulated by the steam pressure existing i n
the engine-cylinder, counterbalanced by a spiral spring, S. The cylinder C, is
screwed into a socket on the engine-cylinder and the tap, T, enables steam to
H be admitted to the indicator when desired. The vertical movement of piston P
is transferred via a piston-rod to the pencil, B, which thus traces a line upon
the indicator card, A. This card is normally mounted on a drum pivoted
vertically but here shown, for simplicity, i n a horizontal side or frame, F,
which is alternately drawn to right and left by the reciprocating motion of the
Fig. 2.10 engine-crosshead opposed by the weight, W. Their motion is transmitted to the
frame via a flexible cord as at K. The vertical movement of pencil B combined
The function of a governor is different from that of a flywheel.
w i t h the horizontal (or rotary) movement of the card results in a closed figure
A flywheel does not control speed variations caused by a varying load but it
being drawn, known as the indicator diagram.
controls the speed varations caused by the fluctuations of the engines turning
movement during each cycle of operatins. I n a 4-stroke petrol engine, for
example, only one stroke, ie. the power stroke exerts the maximum torque on
the crankshaft but the other strokes do not exert any torque and the crankshaft
slows down abruptly. This variation i n the torque during a cycle momentarily
increase or decreases the speed of the crankshaft resulting in uneven running
and the flywheel tries to even out the fluctuations of speed during the operating
cycle. It performs this function by virtue of its large inertia so that it stores
energy when the torque is maximum and releases the stored energy when the
torque is low. The result is that the speed fluctuations during a complete
operating cycle are controlled and the speed of the crankshaft is maintained
within certain specific limits.

Indicator Diagram:
A diagram in which pressure is plotted along the ordinate, and volume
along the abscissa, is called the P-V diagram or indicator diagram. Fig. 2.11 Indicator diagram. Fig. 2.12 Indicator diagram for a steam engine.
 Work, Energy & Power/2.26

A n indicator diagram gives a reliable record of the distribution of

steam i n an engine-cylinder at any instant during the stroke. I n particular, it GGMFFER -
tells us :
1. The pressure existing at either side of the piston at any moment.
2. The effective pressure actuating the piston at any moment. From this FRICTION, BEARINGS, LUBRICATION,
we may calculate. -,j
INCLINED PLANE, BOLTS AND NUTS
I The mean effective pressure oh the piston throughout the stroke.
it The indicated horsepower of the engine.

I n addition, the diagram gives full information as to the points of cut-

off, release, and compression, and enables us t o discover any defect Friction:
i n the setting of the valves, or any leakage of steam past the piston or
Friction may be described as a force which opposes movement of one
through the valves.
surface over another. When a person attempts to slide a body say, a book
resting on the horizontal surface of a table, he has to apply a force t o cause
the sliding because the sliding is resisted by friction between the book and the
| QUESTIONS^ surface of the table. When a body rests on a horizontal surface, the forces
acting on i t to keep i t i n equilibrium are :

1. Its weight, W, acting vertically downwards.

1. Explain the terms work, energy and power and show how they are 2. The normal reaction, R, of the table surface equal and opposite to
inter-related the weight of the body.

2. Describe a dynamometer and the manner of finding out the brake- Neither of these forces has any resolved part at right angles to itself.
i.e. i n a horizontal direction and the force that comes into play when sliding
power of an electric motor ?
one body over another and w h i c h resists motion is the frictional force.
3. Explain the purpose of using (a) a flywheel and (b) a governor onl a A cyclist cycling on a level road has t o exert effort to overcome the friction
(i) between the cycle tyres and the road surface, (ii) at the axles of front and
machine ? Describe a governer w i t h sketch.
reas wheels (iii) at the axle of the pedal and (iv) between chain and sprocker
4. A flywheel is found to accelerate at 0.2 rad/s under a torque of 45
2
wheels. The rougher the road surface, the greater is the frictional resitance to
the tyres and greater is the effort needed by the cyclist. It should, however, not
Nm. Determine its mass moment of inertia. If the flywheel starts from
be considered that friction is an undesirable force or effort. When the cyclist
rest, determine the energy stored i n it after a n accelerating torque of wants to stop the cycle at a desired place, he applies the brakes which being
68 Nm has acted for 100 seconds. the rubber blocks of the brakes i n contact w i t h the moving r i m of the cycle
end the friction between the rubber blocks and the steel r i m causes the latter
Through how many revolutions has the flywheel turned during that
to slow down and eventually stop. Without friction walking and running would
time ? (Ans.: 225 kg-m ; 101250 J; 238.7 rev).
2
lie difficult. A person who has tried to w a l k on ice which has a very smooth
surface compared to the tar road must have experienced how difficult i t is to
walk on the smooth surface which offers very little resistance. Moving parts of
O O O machinery encounter friction during movement over stationary parts.