Between-Subjects Design: Overview

& Examples
simplypsychology.org/between-subjects-design.html

In a between-subjects design, each participant is assigned to only one one level of the
independent variable (treatment condition), and researchers will compare group
differences between participants in these various conditions.

How to Use

In a between-subjects design, participants are divided into separate groups, each

experiencing a different condition or level of the independent variable.

One of these groups is often a control group, which receives no treatment or a placebo,
while the other groups are experimental groups that receive different levels of the treatment
or intervention.
Studies can include multiple experimental groups, each receiving a different level or type of
treatment. For example, a study investigating the effects of different doses of a drug might
have three groups: a control group receiving a placebo, a low-dose group, and a high-dose
group.

The goal of a between-subjects design is to compare the outcomes (dependent variable)

between these different groups to determine if the varying levels of the independent
variable lead to significant differences in the results.

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By manipulating the independent variable between groups, researchers can assess the
effectiveness of different treatments or interventions.

Minimizing Bias

To minismize bias, the participants should be randomly assigned to either the control group
or one of the experimental conditions. They should not know which group they are assigned
to.
 Blinding (masking) in between-group designs prevents participants from knowing their
group assignment. This reduces expectancy effects, demand characteristics, and placebo
effects that could bias results.

By keeping subjects unaware of their condition, researchers can more confidently attribute
any observed differences to the actual treatment effect rather than participant expectations
or behavior changes.

Example

To test whether a new meditation app (your independent variable) can reduce anxiety levels
(your dependent variable), you gather a sample of 100 participants who report high levels of
anxiety.

You use a between-subjects design to divide the sample into two groups:

A control group where the participants are instructed to continue their daily routines
without using the meditation app,
An experimental group where the participants are instructed to use the meditation app
for 20 minutes daily for 4 weeks.

Before and after the 4-week period, you administer an anxiety assessment to all participants.

Then, you compare the change in anxiety levels between the two groups using statistical
analysis to determine if the meditation app had a significant effect on reducing anxiety.

Research Studies

Baeyens, Diaz, & Ruiz (2011) investigated the resistance to extinction of evaluative
conditioning using separate groups of participants, which is a between-subjects
approach.
Ehrlichman et al. (2007) studied the modulation of startle reflex by pleasant and
unpleasant odors, comparing the effects between different groups of subjects.
 Carey, Lester, & Valencia (2016) examined the effects of a fatal vision goggles
intervention on attitudes toward drinking and driving and texting and driving among
middle school children, using a between-subjects design to compare the intervention
group to a control group.
Chang and Kang (2018) investigated the impact of the 2018 North Korea-United
States Summit on South Koreans’ altruism toward and trust in North Korean refugees,
using a between-subjects design to compare responses before and after the summit.
Egele, Kiefer, & Stark (2021) compared the faking of self-reported health behavior
between a within-subjects and a between-subjects design, highlighting the use of both
approaches in their study.

Between-subjects vs within-subjects design

In a between-subjects design, different groups of participants are exposed to different

conditions, and the results are compared between these groups.

In contrast, a within-subjects design exposes each participant to all conditions, and the
results are compared within the same group of participants.

The pretest in a within-subjects design serves as a baseline, similar to a control condition,

while the posttest assesses the effects of the independent variable treatments.

Example: Between-subjects vs within-subjects design

You’re planning to study whether listening to classical music (your independent

variable) while studying can improve memory retention (your dependent variable).

You can use either a between-subjects or a within-subjects design.

If you use a between-subjects design, you would split your sample into two groups of
participants:

A control group that studies in silence for 30 minutes

An experimental group that studies while listening to classical music for 30 minutes

Then, you would administer the same memory test to all participants and compare the
scores between the groups.
If you use a within-subjects design, everyone in your sample would undergo the same
procedures:

1. First, they would all study a list of words in silence for 30 minutes and take a memory
test.
2. After a break, they would study a new list of words while listening to classical music
for 30 minutes.
3. Finally, they would take another memory test on the second list of words.

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You would compare the memory test scores from the silent condition and the classical
music condition statistically.

These two types of designs can also be combined in a single study when you have two or
more independent variables.

In factorial designs, multiple independent variables are tested simultaneously. Each level of
one independent variable is combined with each level of every other independent variable to
create different conditions.
For example, you could study the effects of both music (classical vs. no music) and study
environment (library vs. café) on memory retention. This would create four conditions:

1. Classical music in library

2. Classical music in café
3. No music in library
4. No music in café

In a mixed factorial design, one variable is altered between subjects and another is altered
within subjects.

For instance, you could have two groups of participants (between-subjects: classical music
vs. no music) who each study in both the library and the café (within-subjects: study
environment).

Advantages

Eliminates order effects

Order effects refer to the influence of the sequence or order in which conditions are
presented on the results

In within-subjects designs, the order of conditions can sometimes influence the results
(e.g., practice effects, boredom). Between-subjects designs eliminate this concern by
having each participant only experience one condition.

Avoids carryover effect

Carryover effects refer to the influence of one experimental condition on a participant’s

behavior or responses in a subsequent condition.

For example, if a participant learns a new skill in one condition, that learning might “carry
over” and improve their performance in a later condition, even if that condition isn’t
designed to teach that skill.

However, in between-subjects study designs, the participants are divided into different
treatment groups, so one participant’s exposure to treatment will not affect the outcome of
a subsequent condition.
It’s important to note that between-subjects designs don’t necessarily eliminate all types of
carryover effects. There could still be spillover between groups if participants in different
conditions interact and share information, for instance.

Short and straightforward

Each participant is only assigned to one treatment group, so the experiments tend to be
uncomplicated. Scheduling the testing groups is simple, and researchers tend to be able to
receive and analyze the data quickly.

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Reduced testing fatigue

Since each participant is only tested in one condition, between-subjects designs can help
avoid testing fatigue that might occur in within-subjects designs where participants go
through multiple conditions in one session.
 Limitations

A large participant pool is necessary

Because each subject is assigned to only one condition, this type of design requires a large
sample. Thus, these studies also require more resources and budgeting to recruit
participants and administer the experiments.

Individual differences

Differences between subjects within a given condition may be an explanation for results,
introducing error and making the effects of an experimental condition less accurate.

Requires careful matching or random assignment

To help control for individual differences between groups, researchers must carefully match
participants on key characteristics or use random assignment to conditions.

If groups differ from the outset, it can confound the results.

Less statistical power

For the same sample size, between-subjects designs have less statistical power than
within-subjects designs.

This means larger effect sizes are needed to detect significant differences between
conditions, or larger sample sizes are required.

Frequently Asked Questions

What’s the difference between a within-subjects versus a between-subjects

design?

Between-subjects and within-subjects designs are two different methods for researchers to
assign test participants to different treatments.

Researchers will assign each subject to only one treatment condition in a between-subjects
design. In contrast, in a within-subjects design, researchers will test the same participants
repeatedly across all conditions.
Between-subjects and within-subjects designs can be used in place of each other or in
conjunction with each other.

Each type of experimental design has its own advantages and disadvantages, and it is
usually up to the researchers to determine which method will be more beneficial for their
study.

Can you use a between-subjects and within-subjects design in the same study?

Yes. Between-subject and within-subject designs can be combined in a single study when
you have two or more independent variables (a factorial design).

Factorial designs are a type of experiment where multiple independent variables are tested.
Each level of one independent variable (a factor) is combined with each level of every other
independent variable to produce different conditions.

Each combination becomes a condition in the experiment. In a factorial experiment, the

researcher has to decide for each independent variable whether to use a between-subjects
design or a within-subjects design.

In a mixed factorial design, researchers will manipulate one independent variable between
subjects and another within subjects.
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What is between subject factorial design?

A between-subject factorial design is an experimental setup where participants are randomly

assigned to different levels of two or more independent variables.

This design allows researchers to examine the individual effects of each independent
variable and their interaction effect on the dependent variable, while each participant is
exposed to only one combination of conditions.

References

Allen, M. (2017). The sage encyclopedia of communication research methods (Vols. 1-4).
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc doi: 10.4135/9781483381411

Baeyens, F., Díaz, E., & Ruiz, G. (2005). Resistance to extinction of human evaluative
conditioning using a between‐subjects design. Cognition & Emotion, 19(2), 245-268.

Birnbaum, M. H. (1999). How to show that 9> 221: Collect judgments in a between-subjects
design. Psychological Methods, 4(3), 243.

Carey, A. A., Lester, T. G., & Valencia, R. M. (2016). The Effects of a Fatal Vision Goggles
Intervention on Middle School Aged Children’s Attitudes toward Drinking and Driving and
Texting and Driving as Related to Impulsivity: A Between Subjects Design (Doctoral
dissertation, Brenau University).

Chang, H. I., & Kang, W. C. (2018). The Impact of the 2018 North Korea-United States Summit
on South Koreans’ Altruism Toward and Trust in North Korean Refugees: Between-Subjects
Design Around the Summit. Available at SSRN 3270334.

Egele, V. S., Kiefer, L. H., & Stark, R. (2021). Faking self-reports of health behavior: a
comparison between a within-and a between-subjects design. Health psychology and
behavioral medicine, 9(1), 895-916.