UNIT 4

SPECIAL ICs

Introduction of Timer Circuit :

In most of the industries , operations are scheduled according to specific time requirements. In process
industry, raw material is processed in different stages. In each stage, raw material is processed for a particular
time period. There are number of applications where event must be delayed for specific time periods. To
achieve timing requirement timer circuit is used.

Basic Timer Circuit :

Timer IC 555 :
 The IC 555 is the most versatile linear integrated circuit introduced by Signetics corporation in early
1970. This is a monolithic timer IC which can be used for many timer applications such as monostable
and astable multivibrators, linear ramp generator, missing pulse detector, automatic battery charger
etc.
 It basically contains 2 comparators, a RS Flip Flop and a discharged transistor.
 Let’s see the pin diagram and block diagram of IC 555 timer.

CSVTU : Draw pin diagram of IC 555 timer (8 Marks)

Functional Pin Diagram & Block Diagram of Timer IC 555 :
Features of Timer IC 555 : CSVTU: Pin diagram and features of IC 555 (4 marks)

CSVTU (4 marks)
Que: Why normally control pin connected to ground using 0.01 micro farad capacitor??

The control terminal (pin 5) of a 555 timer is typically connected to ground through a 0.01 microfarad (µF)
bypass capacitor for several important reasons:

1. Noise Filtering: The control terminal is sensitive to voltage changes and can pick up noise from the
surrounding environment. Connecting it to ground through a bypass capacitor helps filter out high-
frequency noise, stabilizing the operation of the timer.
2. Voltage Stability: The 555 timer's control voltage affects the timing intervals. By connecting the
control terminal to ground through a capacitor, any transient changes in the control voltage are
smoothed out, ensuring that the timer operates consistently.
3. Decoupling: The capacitor acts as a decoupling capacitor, preventing fluctuations in the power
supply from affecting the control voltage. This is crucial in applications where the 555 timer is used
in conjunction with other components that may introduce noise or voltage spikes.
4. Improved Performance: By stabilizing the control voltage, the capacitor helps maintain the accuracy
of the timing intervals, ensuring that the 555 timer functions effectively in its intended application,
whether in astable, monostable, or bistable modes.
 In summary, the bypass capacitor connected to the control terminal enhances the reliability and performance
of the 555 timer by filtering noise, stabilizing the control voltage, and decoupling the control terminal from
power supply variations.

CSVTU – Any 2 applicationns of IC 555 Timer (8 marks)

Applications of Timer IC 555 :

1. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
CSVTU – Explain how Pulse Width Modulation achieved using IC 555 Timer (8 marks)

It may be noted from the output waveform that the pulse duration varies according to the modulating signal
level, but the frequency of the output pulses is same as that of the trigger input signal.
2. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

3. Missing Pulse Detector

4. FSK Generator

CSVTU – Opeartion of IC 555 timer as Astable Multivibrator (8 marks)

IC 555 TIMER as ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

 The figure below shows the IC 555 connected as an astable multivibrator. The threshold input is
connected to trigger input. Two external resistances RA, RB and a capacitor C is used in the circuit.
 This circuit has no stable state. The circuit changes its state alternatively. Hence the operation is also
called as Free Running Non-sinusoidal oscillator.
 Now lets see the duty cycle of astable multivibrator.
  The pin diagram of IC 555 timer as an astable multivibrator is shown below.

CSVTU – Explain block diagram of PLL & explain lock and capture range. (8 marks)

PHASE LOCKED LOOP (PLL)

Introduction :
 A PLL is basically a close loop system designed to lock the frequency and phase of output signal to the
frequency and phase of input signal.
 PLL in discrete form has limited use earlier because of high cost. Now with the advanced IC technology,
PLL’s are available as inexpensive monolithic ICs.
 They are used in applications such as frequency synthesis, frequency translation, frequency
modulation/demodulation, tracking filters, FSK demodulator etc.
 Let’s see the basic PLL operation.
 It consists of a phase detector, a LPF, an error amplifier and a Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO).
  The phase detector compares input frequency fi with VCO frequency f0 and generates an output signal
which is function of phase difference between two input signals. The output voltage of phase detector
is a DC voltage.
 Then this DC voltage is applied to the LPF. The LPF removes the high frequency noise from this DC
voltage. The output of LPF is referred as Error Voltage or Control Voltage.
 This Error or Control Voltage is applied as an input to the VCO.
 This error or control voltage forces the VCO to change its output frequency in the direction that
reduces the difference between the input frequency and output frequency of VCO.
 This action known as Capturing. It continues till the output frequency of VCO is same as the input signal
frequency.
 Once the two frequencies are same, the circuit is said to be locked.
 In the locked condition, the phase detector generates a constant DC level which is required to shift the
output frequency of VCO from center frequency to the input frequency.
 Once locked, the PLL tracks the frequency changes of the input signal.
 PLL goes through three states : free running, capture and phase lock.

1. Free Running

When phase detector and LPF outputs are zero then under this condition, VCO operates in frequency
which is known as free running frequency. This is normal operating frequency of VCO and this is
denoted by f0. This PLL free running frequency is determined by its internal frequency determining
components.

CSVTU – Explain lock range and capture range (4 marks)

2. Lock Range

The lock range is usually band of frequencies above and below the PLL free running frequency.

If the frequency of the input signal is outside the PLL lock range than PLL will not be able to lock. Under this
condition, VCO frequency jumps to its fundamental free running frequency.
 3. Capture Range

As described earlier when the frequency within PLL lock range is applied to the circuit, the circuit will adjust
and will remain in locked condition. Any deviation thereafter will be adjusted due to Phase detector, LPF and
VCO functionalities. Once input signal is captured, PLL will remain in locked state and will track the changes in
the input signal till it remains within lock range.
The range of input frequencies over which PLL will capture the input signal is referred as PLL capture
range. As shown in the figure below it is much narrower as compare to the PLL lock range.
Both PLL lock range and PLL capture range are centered on the VCO free running frequency.

CSVTU – Explain monolithic PLL IC 565 with their applications (8 marks)

Monolithic PLL IC 565

Monolithic PLL IC are introduced by Signetics as SE/NE 560 series and by National Semiconductor as LM 560
series. These ICs are differed mainly in operating frequency range, power supply requirements and frequency
and bandwidth adjustment ranges. IC 565 is most commonly used.

IC 565
IC 565 is available in 14 pin DIP package and 10 pin metal can package. Figure shows 14 pin configuration.

Fig : Pin Configuration of IC 565

 Fig : Block Diagram of PLL IC 565

The two inputs (pin 2 and pin 3) to the phase detector allows direct coupling of an input signal. A reference
voltage at pin 6 is approximately equal to the dc voltage of demodulated output at pin 7. This reference
voltage may be used as comparator input in applications like FSK.
Applications of PLL
There are following applications of PLL

1. AM detector
2. FM detector
3. FSK detector
4. Frequency Translator
5. Phase Detector
6. Tracking Filter
7. Frequency Synthesizer

1. PLL as AM Detector

As PLL follows the input frequency with high accuracy, a PLL AM detector exhibits high degree of selectivity
and noise immunity which is not possible with conventional AM detector.

A PLL can be used as AM demodulator as shown in figure below.

  The PLL is locked to the carrier frequency of incoming AM signal.
 Once PLL is locked, the output frequency of VCO is same as the carrier frequency of input AM signal
but it is in unmodulated form.
 AM input signal is also passed through a 90 degree phase shifter.
 This 90 degree phase shifted signal and VCO output (which is unmodualted carrier signal) are
passed as inputs to multiplier which is phase detector.
 Since the VCO output is always 90 degree out of phase with the incoming AM signal under the
locked condition, both the signals applied to multiplier are in same phase. Therefore the output of
multiplier contains both the sum and difference signals.
 The LPF connected with the output of multiplier rejects the high frequency components gives
demodulated output. In this way PLL is used as an AM demodulator or detector.
 The basic principle of this mode of operation is mention below

The multiplier output passes through a LPF which removes high frequency components. So the LPF output is

In this way message signal is obtained at the output and AM demodulation is achieved.

2. PLL as FM Detector
A PLL can be used as FM detector or demodulator as shown in figure below.
 Fig : PLL as FM Detector

 If the PLL is locked with the input FM signal, we will have the VCO frequency that will be equal to the
instantaneous frequency fi of FM signal.

3. PLL as FSK Demodulator

The Frequency deviation is given as

Therefore, for Vf1 and Vf2, comparator gives output ‘0’ and ‘1’ respectively.

4. PLL as Frequency Translator

 Frequency translation means shifting the frequency of oscillator by a small factor.

 Figure shows the block diagram for frequency translator using PLL.

 It consists of a mixer, LPF and a PLL.

 The input frequency is fs, which has to be shifted is applied to the mixer. Another input to the mixer is
the output of VCO that is f0.
 The output of the mixer contains sum and difference signal .
 The output of the mixer is connected to the LPF. This LPF removes the high frequency component that is
and gives only signal at the output.
 The signal applied to the phase detector. Another input of phase detector is the offset frequency f1.
 In the locked mode, the VCO output frequency is adjusted to make two input frequencies of phase detector equal.
 This gives
f0 –fs = f1

And f0 = fs + f1
By adjusting the offset frequency f1, we can shift frequency of the oscillator to the desired value.
5. PLL as Phase Shifter

 There are many methods of modulation and demodulation that requires 90 degree phase shift of local
oscillator signal.
 The circuit shown here presents one method of obtaining a signal together with the signal shifted in
phase by 90 degrees.

 The flip flop output frequency is same as the reference frequency and it can be seen from the timing
diagram that two output signals are differed by 90 degree in phase.

6. PLL as Tracking Filter

 The tracking filter is band pass filter whose center frequency is automatically tuned to the frequency of
reference signal.
 We understand tracking filter better after admitting that the input (reference) signal undergoes an effect
such as Fading which means the signal is lost temporarily from time to time. And the VCO continues to
oscillate at the correct frequency even if the reference is lost temporarily.
 A tracking filter is not only able to continue to oscillate if the reference signal disappears, it is also able to
remain locked if the input signal is mixed with noise.
 A tracking filter is used in AM receiver. In this circuit the VCO is tunable over the frequency band of the
receiver.

7. PLL as Frequency Synthesizer

 A frequency synthesizer is a circuit that generates a large number of precise frequencies from a single
reference frequency.
 Figure shows the block diagram of frequency synthesizer using PLL.
  The frequency of crystal oscillator fosc, passes to divide by M network that divides fosc by an integer
factor M and produces a frequency fosc /M.
 The VCO frequency is fvco, passes to divide by N network that divides fvco by an integer factor N and
produces a frequency fvco /N.
 We know that PLL will be locked when both the inputs of phase detector are equal. That means PLL will
be locked when

fosc /M = fvco /N

fvco = (N/M) fosc

 So from above equation it is clear that by adjusting divider counts to desired values large number of
frequencies can be produced and all derived from crystal oscillator frequency.

IC 566 VOLTAGE CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR (VCO)

 A VCO is an oscillator circuit in which the frequency of oscillations can be controlled by an externally
applied voltage. In this way VCO provides linear relationship between the applied voltage and
oscillation frequency.
 The applied voltage is called as control voltage. The control of frequency with the help of control
voltage is also called as Voltage to Frequency Conversion. Hence VCO is also known as Voltage to
Frequency Converter.
 VCO is used to produce triangular and square waveforms whose frequency is controlled by control
voltage. Some of the applications of VCO are Frequency Shift Keying, FM Modulators, Clock
Generators, Signal Generators and Function Generators.
 Practically VCO are available in IC form. The commonly used VCO ICs are NE/SE 566, LM 566 etc.
 The figure below shows the pin diagram of NE/SE 566 VCO manufactured by Signetics. It is 8 pin IC,
which provides 2 output pins. Its feature is that it simultaneously provides square and triangular wave
 outputs which are the function of input voltage. The input voltage is also called as Modulating Input
Voltage.

 Figure (b) shows the block diagram of NE/SE 566 VCO.

 The OPAMP A1 is used as a buffer, A2 is used as a Schmitt trigger and A3 is used an inverter. The
voltage Vc is supplied to the modulation input pin (Pin 5), which is a control voltage.
 The capacitor is linearly charged or discharged by a constant current source. The charging current can
be controlled by controlling the voltage Vc at pin 5 or by varying the resistance R1 which is external to
the IC .
 The charging and discharging levels are determined by the Schmitt trigger. The output voltage of
Schmitt trigger is designed to swing between +V and 0.5 Volt.
 For Ra= Rb, the voltage at non-inverting terminal swings between 0.5 (+V) to 0.25 (+V). Thus the
triangular wave is generated due to alternate charging and discharging of the capacitor C1 in linear
manner.
 When C1 voltage increases beyond 0.5 (+V), the Schmitt Trigger output goes low, and the capacitor
starts discharging.
 When the voltage becomes less than 0.25(+V), the output of the Schmitt Trigger goes high.
 Due to similar current sources used for charging and discharging, the time taken by C1 to charge and
discharge is same. This produces exact triangular wave.
  The output of the Schmitt Trigger is step response which is available at pin 3 as a square wave output.
 The various waveforms are shown in figure (c) below.

The equation shows that the output frequency of output oscillations is a function of control voltage Vc.
This frequency is also function of external resistor R1 and capacitor C1.

There are following restrictions with the practical values in circuit :

VOLTAGE REGULATORS
 A regulator is a circuit that is used after the filter, which not only makes the DC voltage smooth and
almost ripple free but also keeps the dc output voltage constant under the variable load conditions as
well.
 Thus input to a regulator is an unregulated dc voltage and output of a regulator is regulated dc voltage
to which the load is connected.
 Such a regulator circuit is shown dotted in the figure
  Now a days, complete regulator circuits are available in integrated circuits form.
 Basic voltage regulator in its simplest form consists of
o Voltage reference VR
o Error amplifier
o Feedback network
o Active series or shunt control element

The voltage reference generates a voltage level which is applied to the comparator circuit that is
generally an error amplifier. The second input of error amplifier is obtained from the feedback
network. The feedback signal is derived by sampling the output voltage using potential divider circuit.
The error amplifier then converts the difference between the output samples and reference voltage
into an error signal. This error signal then controls the active element of regulator circuit in order to
compensate the change in output voltage. Such an active element is generally a transistor.

Types of Voltage Regulators

Depending upon where the control element is connected in the regulator circuit, the regulators are basically
classified as
CSVTU : Explain Shunt and Series voltage regulator (8 Marks)
 Shunt Voltage Regulator
 Series Voltage Regulator

Each type provides a constant DC voltage which is regulated.

1. Shunt Voltage Regulator

 If control element is connected in shunt with the load then the regulator circuit is called Shunt Voltage
Regulator. Fig. shows the block diagram of shunt voltage regulator.
 The unregulated input voltage Vin tries to provide the load current but some part of the current is
drawn by the control element to maintain the constant voltage across load. If there is any change in
the load voltage then sampling circuit provides feedback signal to the comparator.
 Then comparator compares the feedback signal with reference voltage and generates a control signal.
This control signal decides the amount of current required to be shunted to keep the load voltage
constant.
 Thus control element maintains the constant output voltage by shunting the current, hence the circuit
is called shunt voltage regulator.

Shunt Regulator using OPAMP

 The OPAMP can be used a voltage comparator. The circuit diagram is shown below.

 There is a potential divider formed by resistances R1 and R2. This potential divider provides part of the
output voltage as feedback.
 The OPAMP compares this with the reference voltage. This reference voltage is generated by zener
diode.
 The OPAMP provides the control signal (current) to the shunt control element which is transistor Q.
 The current through R is the controlled to drop a voltage across R so that the output voltage is
maintained constant.
 The circuit of shunt regulator using OPAMP has following limitations:
o The maximum load current that can be supplied is limited.
o A large amount of power is wasted in zener diode and the series resistance R.
o The performance factors like stability factor, output resistance are not very good for desired
shunt regulator.

2. Series Voltage Regulator

 If control element is connected in series with the load then the regulator circuit is called Series Voltage
Regulator. Fig. shows the block diagram of series voltage regulator.
 The unregulated DC voltage is the input of the circuit.
 The control element controls the amount of the input voltage that gets into the output.
 The sampling circuit provides the necessary feedback signal to the comparator. The comparator
compares this feedback signal with reference voltage to generate appropriate control signal.
 Thus control element which regulates the load voltage, is connected in series with the load and hence
the circuit is called series voltage regulator.

Shunt Regulator using OPAMP

 The OPAMP is used as a comparator. The circuit diagram is shown below.

 It compares the part of output voltage obtained from the potential divider circuit as a feedback with
the reference voltage generated by zener diode.
 The output of OPAMP drives the series control element that is transistor Q1.
 If there is any change in the output voltage then control signal from OPAMP controls the conduction of
transistor Q1. Thus the output voltage is maintained at constant level.
 The output voltage is maintained at constant value that is
IC 723 Regulator
CSVTU – Explain internal structure of IC 723 regulator (8 marks)

 There are certain limitations with three terminal regulator such as

o There is no short circuit protection.
o The output voltage cannot be varied that means the output voltage is fixed.

To overcome these limitations IC 723 voltage regulator is used.

 IC 723 is one of the popular general purpose regulators. It is monolithic linear integrated circuit which
is available in different physical packages such as
o J or N dual in-line package
o V plug-in package
o U-flat package

 Figure shows the pin diagram of IC 723 in U-flat package.

  There are various features of IC 723 regulator.

Internal Structure of IC 723

 The temperature compensated zener diode, constant current source and voltage reference amplifier
constitutes the reference element.
 The constant current source forces the zener diode so that zener will operate at a fixed point. This
fixed point is Vref.
 Then this Vref is connected to the non-inverting input of error amplifier. This error amplifier is high gain
differential amplifier. Its inverting input is either connected to the either full regulated output voltage
or part of that from outside.
 Then this error amplifier controls the series pass transistor Q1 which acts as a variable resistor. This
series pass transistor is a small power transistor having 800 mW power dissipation.
 The unregulated power supply source Vc is connected with collector of transistor Q1.
 Transistor Q2 acts as a current limiter in case of short circuit condition.
 The frequency compensation terminal controls the frequency response of the error amplifier.
 The internal structure can be more simplified as shown below :
 Both inverting and non-inverting terminals of error amplifiers are available on outside pins of IC 723.
Due to this the device becomes more versatile and flexible to use. Only restrictions is that internal reference
voltage is 7 Volt and thus we have to use two different circuits for getting regulated outputs of below 7 Volts
and above 7 Volts.

Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

CSVTU – Explain circuit diagram and operation of SMPS. Also its advantages. (8 marks)

Introduction
For many years, linear AC/DC power supplies have been transforming AC power from the utility grid into DC
voltage for running home appliances or lighting. The need for smaller supplies for high-power applications
means linear power supplies have become relegated to specific industrial and medical uses, where they are
still needed because of their low noise. But switching power supplies have taken over because they are
smaller, more efficient, and are capable of handling high power.

SMPS
When a switching regulator is integrated into an electronic power supply then the power supply will be
known as Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS). This power supply uses a high frequency switching regulator
to convert electrical power efficiently. An SMPS, like any other kinds of power supplies, converts current and
voltage characteristics while transferring power from an AC or DC source (often mains power) into DC loads
(like a personal computer).

The main components of SMPS are a rectifier, filter, inverter, transformer, and feedback control.
Block Diagram of SMPS

The SMPS Block Diagram working can be divided into several stages:

(1) Input Stage:

 AC Input: The SMPS circuit receives AC input from the mains supply.
 Rectification and Filtering: The AC voltage is rectified using a bridge rectifier to convert it into a pulsating
DC voltage. This DC voltage is then filtered using capacitors to produce a relatively smooth DC voltage.

(2) High-Frequency Switching:

 Switching Transistor: A high-frequency switching transistor (like a MOSFET or IGBT) is used to chop the DC
voltage into a high-frequency AC signal. The switching frequency can range from 20 kHz to several MHz.
 PWM Control: The switching transistor is controlled by a Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) controller. The
duty cycle of the PWM signal determines the output voltage.

(3) Transformer Stage:

 High-Frequency Transformer: The high-frequency AC signal is fed into a high-frequency transformer. This
transformer steps up or steps down the voltage to the desired level. The high-frequency transformers differ
significantly from traditional 50/60 Hz transformers.

(4) Output Stage:

 Rectification: The high-frequency AC voltage from the transformer’s secondary winding is rectified using
diodes (typically Schottky diodes for their fast-switching speed).
 Filtering: The rectified voltage is filtered using inductors and capacitors to smooth it out and provide a
stable DC output.
(5) Feedback Mechanism:
Feedback control in an SMPS ensures that the output voltage remains stable despite changes in load or input
voltage. It typically involves:

 Voltage Feedback: A portion of the output voltage is fed back to the PWM controller through an error
amplifier. This feedback loop adjusts the PWM duty cycle to regulate the output voltage and maintain it
within the desired range.
 Isolation: Optocouplers are often used in the feedback loop to maintain electrical isolation between the
high-voltage primary side and the low-voltage secondary side.
 Error Amplifier: Compares output voltage to a reference voltage.
 Compensation Network: Stabilizes the feedback loop.
 Pulse Width Modulator (PWM): Adjusts the duty cycle of the switch to maintain the desired output
voltage.

Advantages of SMPS

 The SMPS weighs relatively little.

 The production spectrum of SMPS is broad.
 The switch-mode power supply has a compact size.
 Strongly anti-interference.
 It is recommended to use SMPS power consumption, which is normally between 60 - 70 percent.

Disadvantages of SMPS

 The SMPS has a very high level of complexity.

 There is only one voltage output in an SMPS.
 SMPS control is poorer and its output ripple is higher.
 In the case of SMPS, the production reflect is substantial and its control is inadequate.
 SMPS usage is limited to step-down regulation.

Applications of SMPS

 Their main applications are in power stations, refrigerators, ovens, and personal computers.
 A frequency converter can be used to convert D.C. voltages to D.C. and A.C. voltages to A.C.
 They are utilized to supply variable power and voltages in factories and manufacturing facilities.
 They are also utilized in power plants, servers, airports, railroads, security systems, and railroads.
 These are found in contemporary smartphones.
 Uncontrolled DV input voltage balancing is another application for the SMPS.
 They are employed in electrical machinery.
 The auto industry also makes use of SMPS devices.
 The purpose of the SMPS is to balance the excess current and stabilize the electric current.
 They are compatible with electromagnetic fields.