3.

2 Groups of Transformation

Definition

A group of transformations is a nonempty set S of Transformation F such that:

a. implies that
b. and imply that
c. ( ) ( )

The first of the properties above guarantees that the inverse for each transformation is
also elements in the set of transformations. The second of the properties is the closure
property. This means the product of any two transformations in the set is also a
transformation in the set. Stated another way, the operation of multiplication can always
be performed within a group of transformations without going outside the group. The last
of the properties is the associate property. It is assumed here that, regardless of the
grouping by the parenthesis, the definition of multiplication of transformations results in
one transformation followed by another, and f (gh) and g(gh) imply the product of the
same three transformations in the same order. For example, consider the three
transformations which have been defined as follows:

( ) ( )
( )

A fourth property that needs to ne established for every group of

transformations is the existence of the identity elements as an element of the group. This
is left an exercise. In general, the commutative property fg=gf does not hold for
transformations. For example, the finite group to be introduced shortly is not a
commutative group. If the commutative group. If the commutative property does hold for
a group, that group is called a commutative or Abelian group (after the Norwegian
mathematician N. H. Abel, 1802 -1829).

Many of the group transformations in geometry are infinite groups – that is,
groups with an infinite number of members. On the other hand, examples of finite groups
will help in developing the concept of a group of transformations. It is important to
remember that the elements of a group of transformations are transformations, not points.
Consider the set of all symmetries of an equilateral triangle, as shown in Figure 2.8.

3 2 1

1 t 2 1 R1 3 3 R2 2

(a) (b) (c )
3 2 1

2 R2 1 3 R(120) 1 2 R(20) 3

(d ) (e ) (f )

FIGURE 2.8
1
 “Symmetries of the triangle” designates the reflections about the axis of
symmetry or rotation such that the new figure coincides with the old. The result of each
symmetry can be represented by a renaming of the three vertices. Check each of the
figures in Figure 2.8 to see that it corresponds to the following definitions of the elements
of the set of symmetries of an equilateral triangle:

Reflection about the axis through vertex 1

Reflection about the axis through vertex 2
Reflection about the axis through vertex 3
( ) Reflection through an angle counterclockwise
( ) Reflection through an angle counterclockwise
I Identity

To verify that the set symmetries of an equilateral triangle constitute a group, it is

necessary to verify that implies that and that and implies. The inverse element for each
transformation is listed below.
−1
ff
R1 R1
R2 R2
R 3 R3
R (120 ) R ( 240 )
R (240 ) R ( 120 )
II
The verification of both facts can be accomplished by completing a multiplication
table for the elements. The entries in the table are found by performing the
transformations in the order indicated. For example, Table 2.1 shows [ ( ) ] Recall that
R(120) comes first in this multiplication.

TABLE 2.1
First Transformation Performed

I PerformedR1
Second Transformation R2 R3 R ( 120 ) R(240)
I I R1 R2 R3 R ( 120 ) R(240)
R1 R1 I R ( 120 ) R(240) R2 R3
R2 R2 R(240) I R ( 120 ) R3 R1
R3 R3 R ( 120 ) R(240) I R1 R2
R ( 120 ) R ( 120 ) R3 R1 R2 R(240) I
R(240) R(240) R2 R3 R1 I R ( 120 )

Introduction of the permutation group symbol will illustrate a common agreement

that ties the work or transformation groups more closely to that found in modern algebra
texts. Two rows of numbers are used to define a transformation. The first row shows the
original vertices, and the second row shows the new position of those vertices.

(
R1= 1 , 2, 3
1 ,3 ,2 ) Explanation for R1. Vertex 1 remains fixed,
Vertex 2 moves to the place where vertex 3
was originally, and vertex 3 to the place where

(
R2= 1 , 2, 3
3 , 2 ,1 ) vertex 2 was originally.

(
R3= 1 , 2 ,3
2 , 3 ,1 )
Explanation for R(120). Vertex 1 moves to the
place where vertex 2 was originally, vertex 2
moves to the place where 3 was originally, and
2
vertex 3 moves to the place where 1 was
originally.
 (
R ( 120 )= 1 , 2, 3
2 , 3 ,1 )

(
R ( 240 )= 1 , 2, 3
3 , 1 ,2 )
There are five other equivalent forms for each of the permutation group symbols.
This is true because the elements on the first row can be arranged in any of six ways. For
example, two other equivalent forms for are

( ) and ( )

Either the permutations symbols, or a series of pictures, can be used to check the
entries in the multiplication table. Three examples follow to illustrate both methods.

Example 1

( )( ) ( )
R1 R 2 1 23 1 2 3 = 1 2 3 =R(120)
1 32 3 2 1 231

The notation means that R2 is first. This is indicated by

(13 22 31)
Then the result on the bottom line becomes the top line of one of the equivalent forms for
R1.

(32 23 11)
The product has the top row from R2 and the bottom row from the form of R1, and can be
identified as the definition of R(120).

Finding the product of the two transformations can also be illustrated as in Figure 2.9.
3 1 2

R2 R1

1 2 3 2 3 1

3 2

R(120)

1 2 3 1
FIGURE 2.9

3
Note the important convention observed in the first row of Figure 2.9. The second
transformation is performed using the original positions for the vertices. Thus, the vertex
that was where vertex 3 was originally, (1), is moved to where vertex 2 was originally.
The vertex that was where vertex 2 was originally, (2), is moved to where vertex 3 was
originally, and the vertex that was where vertex 1 was originally, (3), remains unchanged.
Because of this somewhat tedious interpretation, you will probably find the use of
permutation symbols a valuable shortcut.

Example 2

( )( ) ( )
R(120)¿ R2= 12 3 1 23 = 1 23 =R 1
23 1 3 2 1 1 3 2
Example 3

( )( ) ( )
R(240) R(120)= 1 23 1 2 3 = 1 2 3 =I
3 12 2 3 1 122

Examples 2 and 3 are illustrated in Figure 2.10.

3 1 2
R2 R(120)

1 2 3 2 1 3
R1

3 2 3

R(120) R(240)

1 2 3 1 1 2
I

FIGURE 2.10

The conclusion from the discussion of the equilateral triangle is stated as theorem.

Theorem 2.1

The set of symmetry of the equilateral triangle is a group of transformations.

The group of symmetries of an equilateral triangle is not a commutative group. As

a specific example, ( ) but ( ) . Note that a consequence of this lack of commutativity is
that, when the elements are listed in the same horizontal and vertical order, the
multiplication table is not symmetric about the diagonal from upper left to lower right.

Within a group of transformations may be subgroups of transformations. A

subgroup is a subset of a group that is itself a group. For example, one such subgroup of
the symmetries of an equilateral triangle has elements I R (120) , and R(240) . Verify from

4
the multiplication table that the products are elements of a subgroup. Furthermore,
observe that this subgroup is a commutative group.

Other examples of finite group of transformations are the symmetries of a square

and the symmetries of an isosceles triangle.

Exercise set 3.2

Provide neat and complete solutions on a long bond paper.

1. Find the products from the multiplication table for the symmetries of an
equilateral triangle, then use the permutation notation to verify each answer.

(a) R(240)
(b) ()
(c)
(d)

2. Is the set { } of symmetries for the equilateral triangle a subgroup?