Density

Part -01

Fluid
Fluids are the substances that can flow or deforms. Therefore, liquids and gases both are fluids.

Study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics or hydrostatics and the study of fluid in motion is called fluid dynamics
or hydrodynamics. Fluid statics and fluid dynamics collectively known as fluid mechanics.

The intermolecular forces in liquids are comparatively weaker than in solids. Therefore, their shapes can be
changed easily. When external force (shear stress) is present, liquid can flow until it conforms to the boundaries
of its container. Most liquids resist compression. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a
container and it forms a free surface.

The intermolecular forces are weakest in gases, so their shapes and sizes can be changed much easily. Gases are
highly compressible and occupy the entire space of the container quite rapidly. Unlike liquid, gases can't form
free surface.

(i) Density
Mass
Density =
Volume
M
=
V

Units –

kg
(i) (SI system)
m3
gm
(ii) (CGS system)
cm 3

Note
(i) water = 1000 kg/m3 = 1 gm/cc

(ii) Hg = 13600 kg/m3 = 13.6 gm/cc

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-01

Density of mixture
If two immiscible liquids of mass m1 and m2 and volume V1 and V2 are mixed together then density of mixture
is given by :
Total mass of mixture
mix =
Total volume of mixture
m + m 2 m1 + m 2
mix = 1 =
v1 + v 2 m1 m1
+
1 2
Case (1) :
If liquid with same masses are mixed i.e. m1 =m2 =m then –
21 2 (Harmonic mean of individual densities)
mix =
1 +  2

Case (2) :
If liquid with same volumes are mixed i.e. V1 = V2 = V then
1 + 2
mix = (Arithmetic mean of individual densities)
2

Illustration 1.
Two immiscible liquids having density 2 gm/cc and 4 gm/cc are mixed then find density of mixture if -
(1) Same volumes are taken
(2) Same masses are taken
Solution.
1 + 2 2 + 4
(1) mix = = = 3gm/ cc
2 2
(2)  mix = 212 = 2(2)(4) = 8 gm /cc
1 +  2 2+4 3

Illustration 2.
Density of mixture is 4 gm/cc when equal volumes are taken and 3 gm/cc when equal masses are taken, then
find density of individual liquid.
Solution.
Let the density of liquids are 1 and 2
If equal volumes are taken -
1 + 2
= 4  1 + 2 = 8 …(1)
2
If equal masses are taken -
21 2 …(2)
= 3  1 2 = 12
1 +  2
By solving both equations -
1 = 2 'or' 6 gm/cc
2 = 6 'or' 2 gm/cc
(ii) Relative density:
Density of substance
R.D. =
Density of pure water at 4° C
R.D. is an unitless and dimensionless quantity

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-01

(iii) Specific weight:

Weight of substance mg
Specific weight = =
Volume of substance V
Sp. Wt. = g
unit → N/m3
(iv) Specific Gravity:
Specific weight of substance
S.G. =
Specific weight of pure water at 4°C
g 
S.G. = = = R.D.
w g w
Note
The numerical value of specific gravity and relative density are same.

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 Pressure and Pressure due to Liquid Column
Part -02

Pressure
Pressure P is defined as the magnitude of the normal force acting per unit surface area.
F⊥
P= , here F⊥ = normal force on a surface of area A
A

SI UNIT : Pascal (Pa) ; 1 Pa = 1 N/m2 Dimensions : [ML–1T–2]

Practical units : atmospheric pressure (atm), bar and torr .
1 atm = 1.01325 × 105 Pa = 1.01325 bar = 760 torr = 760 mm of Hg = 10.33 m of water
1 bar = 105 Pa ; 1 torr = 1 mm of mercury column = 133 Pa.
Pressure is a scalar quantity.

Illustration 1.
A 50 kg girl wearing heel shoes balances on a single heel. The heel is circular with a diameter 1 cm. The pressure
exerted by the heel on the horizontal floor is (Take g = 10 m s –2)
(1) 6.4 × 104 Pa (2) 6.4 × 105 Pa (3) 6.4 × 106 Pa (4) 6.4 × 107 Pa
Solution.
(1)
Here, m = 50 kg, D = 1 cm = 10–2 m, g = 10 ms–1
 Pressure exerted by the heel on the horizontal floor is
F mg 4mg
p= = =
A (D / 2) 2
D 2
4  50kg  10ms −2
=
3.14  (10−2 m) 2
= 6.4 × 106 Pa

Types of Pressures
Pressure is of three types :
(i) Atmospheric pressure (Po/Patm)
(ii) Gauge pressure (Pgauge)
(iii) Absolute pressure (Pabs.)

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-02

(1) Atmospheric Pressure

Force exerted by atmospheric column on unit cross-sectional area at mean sea level is called atmospheric

pressure (P0)

Po = 101.3 kN/m2
 Po = 1.013×105 N/m2

Note
Barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure.

(2) Gauge Pressure

Excess Pressure over the atmospheric pressure (P– Patm) measured with the help of pressure measuring
instruments is called gauge pressure.

Note
Gauge pressure is always measured with the help of a "manometer".

(3) Absolute Pressure :-

Sum of the atmospheric and gauge pressure is called absolute pressure.

Pabs = Patm + Pgauge

Pabs = Po + hg

Pressure due to liquid at depth 'h'

m = mass of liquid element

A = Area of cross - section of liquid element

Since fluid is at rest

 P1A + mg = P2A
 P1A + (Ah)g = P2A

 P2 = P1 + gh

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-02

Note
Pressure exerted by a same liquid at any point does not depend on shape and size of the container (it means
quantity of liquid). It depends only on the height of liquid column.

Pressure due to liquid

PA = PB = PC = PD

Pressure due to liquid on a vertical wall of container

Pressure due to liquid on a vertical wall is different at different depths, so average fluid pressure on side wall of
gh
the container is equal to mean pressure = (h = height of wall)
2

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 Problems based on Pressure due to Liquid Column
and Barometer
Part -03

Illustration 1.
A cuboid (a × a × 2a) is filled with a liquid of density '' as shown in figure. Neglecting atmospheric pressure,
find out
(a) Force on base wall of the cuboid
(b) Force on side wall of the cuboid

Solution.
(a) Force on base wall = Pbase wall × Abase wall
= g(2a) × a2
= 2ga3
(b) Force on side wall = Pside wall × Aside wall
 0 + g(2a) 
=    2a
2

 2 
= 2ga3

Illustration 2.
Find the force acting on the piston of 3 cm2 at point 2 due to the water column of height 10 m.
1

10 m

(1) 10 N (2) 20 N (3) 30 N (4) 40 N

Solution.
F = PA = ghA
= 103 × 10 × 10 × 3 × 10–4 = 30 N

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-03

Illustration 3.
A tube 1 cm2 in cross-section is attached to the top of a vessel 1 cm high and of cross-section 100 cm2. Water

is poured into the system filling it to a depth of 100 cm above the bottom of the vessel as shown in Fig.
Take g = 10 ms–2.

1 cm2
Cross sectional area

99 cm

1 cm
100 cm2

(1) The force exerted by the water against the bottom of the vessel is 100 N.
(2) The weight of water in the system is 1.99 N

(3) Both (1) and (2) are correct

(4) Neither (1) nor (2) is correct

Solution.
P = hg = ( 99 + 1) 1100 = 105 dyne cm-2

F = 105 × 100 = 107 dyne = 100 N

V = (1×99) + (1×100) = 199 cm3

W = mg = V.g = (1×199×1000) dyne

= 1.99 N

Illustration 4.

A tank 5 m high is half filled with water and then is filled to the top with oil density 0.85 g-wt/cm3. The
pressure at the bottom of the tank, due to these liquids is
(1) 1.85 g-wt/cm2 (2) 89.25 g-wt/cm2 (3) 462.5 g-wt/cm2 (4) 500 g-wt/cm2
Solution.
Pressure at the bottom
g − wt
P = (h1d1 + h2d2 )
cm2
= [250 × 1 + 250 × 0.85]
g − wt g − wt
= 250[1.85] 2
= 462.5
cm cm2
Barometer
A tube of length 1 m and uniform cross section is taken. It is filled with mercury and inverted into a mercury
tray. The height of the mercury column in equilibrium inside the tube is 76 cm.

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-03

 Atmospheric pressure PO = gh

= 13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × 76 × 10–2
= 1.013 × 105 N/m2

Barometer in lift
Case (1) : Lift accelerating upwards with acceleration 'a'
Patm = (g + a)h

Case (2) : Lift accelerating downwards with acceleration 'a'

Patm = (g − a)h

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 U- tube
Part -04
U- tube concept

For the same stationary liquid, pressure at same horizontal level remains same.
PA = PB
P0 + hHgHgg = P0 + hwwg
h Hg Hg = h w w

Illustration 1.
An open U-tube contains water and unknown liquid separated by mercury. The mercury columns in two arms
are in level with 8 cm of water in one arm and 10 cm of unknown liquid in the other. Find the specific gravity of
unknown liquid.
Solution.

hww = hliqliq
liq hw
(S.G.)liq. = =
w h liq
8
(S.G.)liq. = = 0.8
10

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 Pascal's Law
Part -05

Pascal's Law
Pascal's law is stated in following ways.
⚫ A liquid exerts equal pressures in all directions at point.
⚫ If the pressure in an enclosed fluid is changed at a particular point, the change is transmitted to every point
of the fluid and to the walls of the container without being diminished in magnitude.

Applications of pascal's law

hydraulic lifts, hydraulic press, hydraulic brakes, etc

Hydraulic lift

F1
Pressure applied =
A1
F2
 Pressure transmitted =
A2
 Pressure is equally transmitted
F1 F
 = 2
A1 A 2
F1 A
 Upwards force on A2 is F2 =  A 2 = 2  F1
A1 A1

Illustration 1.

(1) Find the force transmitted on larger piston.

(2) If smaller piston is pushed down through 6cm, then how much the larger piston will move up.

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-05

Solution.
F1 F
(1) = 2
A1 A 2
10 F
= 22
(1) 2
(3)
F2 = 90N
(2) V1 = V2
A1h1 = A2h2
6
 = 0.67cm
9

Illustration 2.
The neck and bottom of a bottle are 4 cm and 12 cm in radius respectively. If the cork is pressed with a force
10 N in the neck of the bottle, then find out the force exerted on the bottom of the bottle:
Solution.
F1 F
= 2
A1 A 2
2
A  R 
2
 12 
F2 =  2  F1 =  2  F1 =    10 = 90N
 A1   R1  4

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 Buoyancy, Archimedes' Principle and Laws of Floatation
Part -06

Buoyancy
Buoyant Force
If a body is partially or fully immersed in a fluid, it experiences an upward force due to the fluid surrounding it.
This phenomenon of force exerted by fluid on the body is called buoyancy and force is called buoyant force or
force of upthrust.

Archimedes' Principle
It states that the upward buoyant force on a body that is partially or totally immersed in a fluid is equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by it.

Consider a body immersed in a liquid of density .

Top surface of the body experiences a downward force
F1 = AP1 = A[h1..g + P0] …(i)
Lower face of the body will experience an upward force
F2 = AP2 = A[h2..g + P0] …(ii)
As h2 > h1 so F2 is greater than F1
so net upward force F = F2 – F1 = Ag[h2 – h1]
 F = A..g.L. = Vin..g [ Vin = volume of the body submerged in the fluid = AL]

Apparent weight
We consider that a body is completely submerged inside fluid :-
Wapp = W – Fb
Wapp = mg – Vg
Wapp = Vg – Vg
Wapp = V( – )g

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-06

Principle of Floatation
When a body of density () and volume (V) is completely immersed in a liquid of density (), the forces acting
on the body are :
(i) Weight of the body W = Mg = Vg directed vertically downwards
(ii) Buoyant force or Upthrust Fb = Vg directed vertically upwards
The following three cases are possible :

Case I : Density of the body is greater than that of liquid ( > )

In this case W > Fb
So the body will sink to the bottom of the liquid.
WApp = W – Fb
= Vg – Vg
= Vg (1 – /)
= W (1 – /).

Case II : Density of the body is equal to the density of liquid ( = )

In this case W = Fb
So the body will float fully submerged in the liquid. It will be in neutral equilibrium.
WApp = W – Fb
=0

Case III : Density of the body is lesser than that of liquid ( < )
In this case W < Fb
So the body will float partially submerged in the liquid. In this case the volume of liquid displaced by
the body (Vin) will be less than the volume of body (V). This ensures that upthrust equals to W.
 WApp = W – Fb = 0

The above three cases constitute the laws of floatation which states that a body will float in a liquid if weight of
the liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body is at least equal to the weight of the body.

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 Problems based on Laws of Floatation
Part -07

Illustration 1.
3
If a block of wood floats in water with of its volume inside the water then what is the density of wood?
5
Solution.
In floating condition W = Fb
 bVg = wVing
3
 bV = 1000 × V
5
 b = 0.6 × 103 kg/m3
Illustration 2.
5
A block of wood floats in water with one-third of its volume submerged. The same block floats in oil with of
9
its volume submerged. Find the density of (i) wood and (ii) oil (Density of water is 10 3 kg/m3)
Solution.
When block floats in water, then
W = Fb
V 1000
 bVg = w . g  b = kg / m3
3 3
When block floats in oil, then
W = Fb
5V
 bVg = oil × g
9
9
 oil = b
5
 oil = 600 kg/m3

Illustration 3.
A cube with an edge of 10cm is immersed in a vessel containing water. A layer of liquid immiscible with water
and having a density of 0.8 × 103 kg/m3 is poured above water. The interface between the liquid is at the middle
of the cube height. Find the mass of the cube :
Solution.
W = Fb(liq) + Fb(water)
 mg =  Vin liq g + w Vin water g

 m = ( + w)Vin
v
= (0.8 × 103 + 103) × (10 × 10 × 5 × 10–6) [ Vin = = 5  10−4 m3 ]
2
= 0.90 kg

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-07

Illustration 4.
A boat having a length of 4m and width of 3m is floating in water. The boat sinks by 2cm when a man gets onto
it. Find the mass of the man.
Solution.
In floating condition
W = Fb
 mg = wVin g
 2 
 m = 1000 ×  4  3 
 100 
 m = 240 kg

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 Types of Flow
Part -08

Types of Fluid flow

Fluid flow can be classified as:

Steady flow
Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid velocity at a point does not change with time. The
fluid particle may have a different velocity at some other point.
In steady flow all the particles passing through a given point follow the same path and hence a unique line of
flow.
This line or path is called a streamline. Streamlines do not intersect each other, if they do so any particle at the
point of intersection can move in either directions and consequently the flow cannot be steady.

Laminar and Turbulent flow

Laminar flow is the flow in which fluid particles move along well-defined streamlines which are straight and
parallel. In laminar flow the velocities at different points in the fluid may have different magnitudes, but their
directions are parallel. Thus the particles move in laminae or layers sliding smoothly over the adjacent layer.
Turbulent flow is an irregular flow in which the particles move in zig-zag way due to which eddy formation take
place which are responsible for high energy losses.

Rotational and Irrotational flow

Rotational flow is the flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along different path-lines also rotate about
their own axes. In irrotational flow the particles do not rotate about their axes.

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 Equation of Continuity
Part -09

Equation of Continuity

(i) The continuity equation is the mathematical expression of the law of conservation of mass in fluid dynamics.
(ii) In the steady flow mass of the fluid entering into a tube of flow in a particular time interval is equal to the
mass of fluid leaving the tube.
m1 m 2
= or 1A1v1 = 2A2v2
t t
for incompressible fluid 1 = 2
or A1v1 = A2v2 or Av = constant
dV
Volume flux = Rate of flow = Volume of liquid flowing per second Q = = Av
dt
Litre m
Unit of (Q) m3/s or or
sec s

Illustration 1.
Water from a tap emerges vertically downwards with an initial speed of 3 m/sec. The cross sectional area of tap
is 2m2. Assume that the pressure is constant throughout the stream of water and that the flow is steady. Find
the cross sectional area of stream 80 cm below the tap. (g =10 m/s2)

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-09

Solution.
By 3rd equation of motion
v2 = u2 + 2as
v22 = (3)2 + 2(10)(0.8)
v2 = 5 m/sec
By equation of continuity →
A1v1 = A2v2
(2) (3) = (A2) (5)
6
A2 = = 1.2m 2
5

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 Bernoulli's Theorem
Part -10

Bernoulli's Theorem

According to Bernoulli's Theorem, in case of steady flow of incompressible and non-viscous fluid through a tube

of non-uniform cross section then the sum of the pressure energy per unit volume, the potential energy per unit

1 2
volume and the kinetic energy per unit volume is same at every point in the tube, i.e., P + gh + v = constant.
2

This equation is the Bernoulli's equation and expresses principle of conservation of mechanical energy in case

of moving fluids.

The sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy per unit volume remains constant along a

streamline in an ideal fluid flow i.e.,

1 2
P+ v + gh = constant (Energy per unit volume)
2

P v2
Or + + gh = constant (Energy per unit mass)
 2

P v2
Or + + h = constant (Energy per unit weight)
g 2g

P v2
In the above equation is called the pressure head, is called the velocity head and h is called the
g 2g

gravitational/potential head.

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-10

Illustration 1.
Water is moving with a speed of 5 m/sec through a pipe with cross sectional area of 4cm2. The water gradually
descends 10m as the pipe increase in area to 5cm2. If the pressure at the upper level is 2 atm then find the
pressure at lower level. (g =10 m/s2)

Solution.
Given - A1 = 4cm2, A2 = 5cm2
h1–h2 = 10 m
v1 = 5 m/sec
From equation of continuity →
A1v1 = A2v2
(4) (5) = (5) v2
v2 = 4 m/sec
Applying Bernoulli's theorem –
1 1
P1 + v12 + gh1 = P2 + v 22 + gh 2
2 2
1
P2 = P1 + (v12 − v 22 ) + g(h1 − h 2 )
2
1
P2 = (2  105 ) + (103 )(52 − 42 ) + (103 )(10)(10)
2
P2 = 2 × 105 + 4.5 × 103 + 1 × 105
P2 = 3.045 × 105 N/m2
P2 = 3.045 atm

Illustration 4.
Water is kept in a bucket shown in the figure. Find the speed at which water will be coming out if the bottom
surface is removed and its top level is maintained by pouring the liquid through the tap.
(density of water = 1000 kg/m3, g = 10 m/s2)
Solution.
Applying Bernoulli's theorem at points A and B –

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-10

1 1
P0 + v 2A + gh = P0 + v 2B
2 2
2gh
 vB = 2
r 
1−  2 
 r1 
2 10 1.8
= = 10m / s
1 − (0.8) 2

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 Torricelli's law
Part -11
Torricelli's law
Speed of Efflux
As shown in the figure the area of cross-section of the vessel A is very large as compared to that orifice B,
therefore speed of liquid flow at A is zero i.e. vA  0. The fluid at sections A and B are at the same pressure P
(atmospheric pressure). Applying Bernoulli's theorem at A and B.

1 1 1 2
P0 + gH + v A2 = P0 + g(H − h) + v B2 or v B = gh or vB = 2gh
2 2 2
This equation is same as that of the velocity acquired by a freely falling body after falling through h height and
is known as Torricelli's law.
Writing the equation of uniformly accelerated motion in the vertical direction
1 1
H − h = 0 + gt 2 (from s y = u y t + a y t 2 )
2 2
2(H − h)
 t= , t = time of flight as in case of horizontal projection from the top of a tower.
g
2(H − h)
Horizontal range R = v x t = 2gh  or R = 2 h(H − h)
g
H
Range will be maximum when h=H–h or h=
2
H H
 R max = 2  H−  =H
2 2
Reaction force on vessel
By Newton's third law –
 dm 
F = v 
 dt 
d(V)
F=v
dt
dV
F = v
dt
F = v(Av)
F = Av 2

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-11

Illustration 1.
There are two identical small holes on the opposite sides of a tank containing a liquid. The tank is open at the
top. The difference in heights between the two holes is h. Find the resultant force of reaction of liquid flowing
out of vessel.
Solution.
Net reaction force
F = F A – FB
= a ( v2A − vB2 )
= a(2gh A − 2gh B )
= 2agh

Illustration 2.
A cylindrical tank 1m in radius rests on a platform 10 m high. Initially, the tank is filled with water to a height of
10 m. A small plug whose area is 10 –4 m2 is removed from an orifice located on the side of the tank at the bottom.
Calculate the :

(i) initial speed with which water flows out from the orifice
(ii) initial speed with which the water strikes the ground.
Solution.
(i) Applying Bernoulli's theorem between the water surface and the orifice,

1 1
P0 + (0) 2 + gh = P0 + v 2 + g(0)
2 2
1
gh = v 2 ; v = 2gh = 2  10  10 = 10 2 m / s
2

(ii) Let v' be the initial velocity with which the water strikes the ground
Then, applying Bernoulli's theorem between the top of the tank and the ground level, we get
v' = 2g(H + h) = 2 10  20 = 20m / s

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 Venturimeter
Part -12

Venturimeter
Venturimeter is used to measure the flow velocities in an incompressible fluid. As shown in figure if P 1 and P2
are the pressures and v1 and v2 are the velocities of the fluid of density  at points 1 and 2 on the same horizontal
level and A1 and A2 be the respective areas, then from equation of continuity

A 
A1v1 = A2v2 or v 2 =  1  v1 …(i)
 A2 
1 2 1
From Bernoulli's equation for horizontal flow, P1 + v1 = P2 + v 22
2 2
1 2 1  A2 
Or P1 + v1 = P2 +   12  v12 [from equation (i)]
2 2  A2 

1  A12 
Or P1 − P2 = v1  − 1
2
2
2 A 2 
But P1 – P2 = gh [ difference in heights between the liquid surfaces in the two arms is h]

1  A2 
 gh = v12  12 − 1
2  A2 
1
−
 A2  2
2gh
 v1 = 2gh  12 − 1 = A2
A
 2  A12 − A 22

2gh
If Q be the volume of liquid flowing per unit time then Q = A1v1 = A 2 v 2 = A1A 2
A − A 22
2
1

Thus at a point where the cross-sectional area is smaller velocity is greater and pressure is lower and vice versa.

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-12

Illustration 1.
A liquid flows through a horizontal tube. The velocities of the liquid in the two sections, which have areas of
cross-section A1 and A2, are v1 and v2 respectively. The difference in the levels of the liquid in the two vertical
tubes is h

A1 v1 A2
v2
(1) The volume of the liquid flowing through the tube in unit time is A1v1
(2) v 2 − v1 = 2gh
(3) v 22 − v12 = 2gh
(4) The energy per unit mass of the liquid is the same in both sections of the tube
Solution.
(1,3,4)
According to equation of continuity the volume of liquid flowing through the tube in unit time remains constant
i.e. A1v1 = A2 v2 , hence option (1) is correct
According to Bernoulli's theorem,
1 1
P1 + v12 = P2 + v 22
2 2
1 1
 P1 − P2 =  ( v 22 − v12 )  hg =  ( v 22 − v12 )
2 2
 v 22 − v12 = 2gh
Hence option (3) is correct.
Also, according to Bernoulli's theorem option (4) is correct

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 Dynamic Lift
Part -13

Dynamic Lift

Aerofoil
This is a structure which is shaped in such a way so that its motion relative to a fluid produces a force
perpendicular to the flow. As shown in the figure the shape of the aerofoil section causes the fluid to flow faster
over the top surface than below the bottom i.e. the streamlines are closer above than below the aerofoil. By
Bernoulli's theorem the pressure at above reduced whereas that underneath it gets increased.
Thus, a resultant upward thrust is generated normal to the flow and it is this force which provides most of the
upward lift for an aeroplane.
Examples of aerofoils are aircraft wings, turbine blades and propellers.

Applying Bernoulli's theorem between upper and bottom surface of aerofoil.

1 1
P1 + v12 = P2 + v 22
2 2

 P1 − P2 = air ( v 22 − v12 )
1
2
Net upward lifting force

F = (P1 − P2 )A = air A ( v 22 − v12 )

1
2

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 Conceptual Applications of Bernoulli's Theory
Part -14

Conceptual Applications of Bernoulli's Theory

Magnus Effect (Observed in a Spinning Ball)

Tennis and cricket players usually experience that when a ball is thrown spinning, it moves along a curved path.
This is called swing of the ball. This is due to the air which is being dragged round by the spinning ball. When
the ball spins, the layer of the air around it also moves with the ball. So, as shown in figure the resultant velocity
of air increases on the upper side and reduces on the lower side.

Hence according to Bernoulli's theorem the pressure on the upper side becomes lower than that on the lower
side. This pressure difference exerts a force on the ball due to which it moves along a curved path. This effect is
known as Magnus-effect.

Sprayer or Atomizer
This is an instrument used to spray a liquid in the form of small droplets (fine spray). It consists of a vertical tube
whose lower end is dipped in the liquid to be sprayed, filled in a vessel. The upper end opens in a horizontal
tube. At one end of the horizontal tube there is a rubber bulb and the other end has is a fine bore (hole). When
the rubber bulb is squeezed, air rushes out through the horizontal tube with very high velocity and thus the
pressure reduces (according to Bernoulli's theorem). Consequently, the liquid in the vessel rises up and mixes
with air in the form of small droplets which gets ejected in the form of a fine spray.
Example: paint guns, perfume or deodorant sprayer, etc.

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-14

Motion of the Ping-Pong Ball

When a ping-pong ball is placed on a vertical stream of water-fountain, it rises upto a certain height above the
nozzle of the fountain and spins about its axis. The reason for this is that the air streams of water rise up from
the fountain with large velocity so that the air-pressure decreases. Therefore, whenever the ball tends to fall out
from the stream, the outer air which is at atmospheric pressure pushes it back into the stream (in the region of
low pressure). Thus, the ball remains more or less stable in the fountain.

Blowing-off of Tin Roof Tops in Wind Storm

When wind blows with a high velocity above a tin roof, it causes lowering of pressure above the roof, while the
pressure below the roof is still atmospheric. Due to this pressure-difference the roof is lifted up and is blown
away during storms.

Pull-in or Attraction Force by Fast Moving Trains

If we are standing on a platform and a train passes through the platform with very high speed we are pulled
towards the train. This is because as the train moves at high speed, the pressure close to the train decreases.
Thus, the air away from the train which is still at atmospheric pressure pushes us towards the train. The reason
behind flying-off of small papers, straws and other light objects towards the train is also the same.

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 Molecular Theory of Surface Tension
Part -15

Surface Tension
Surface tension is basically a property of liquid. The liquid surface behaves like a stretched elastic membrane
which has a natural tendency to contract and tends to have a minimum possible area. This property of liquid is
called surface tension.

Intermolecular forces
Forces of attraction or repulsion acting among the molecules are known as intermolecular forces. The nature of
intermolecular force is electromagnetic.
There are two types of intermolecular attractive forces.

Cohesive Force
The force of attraction acting between the molecules of same material is defined as cohesive force.
Ex. : force acting between water molecules, Hg molecules.

Adhesive Force
The force of attraction acting between molecules of two different materials is defined as adhesive force.
Ex. : Force acting between the molecules of paper and ink, black board and chalk etc.
• Intermolecular forces are different from gravitational forces in the sense that the former does not obey
inverse- square law.
• The distance upto which these forces remains effective, is called molecular range. This distance is nearly 10–9
m. Within this limit the forces increases very rapidly as the distance decreases.
• Molecular range depends on the nature of the substance.

Explanation of Surface Tension (Molecular theory of surface Tension)

Laplace explained the phenomenon of surface tension on the basis of intermolecular forces. According to him
surface tension is a molecular phenomenon and its root cause is electromagnetic force. He explained the cause
of surface tension as described below. If the distance between two molecules is less than the molecular range
C ( 10–9 m) then they attract each other, but if the distance is more than this, the attraction becomes negligible.
If a sphere of radius C with a molecule at centre is drawn, then only those molecules which are enclosed within
this sphere can attract or be attracted by the molecule at the centre of the sphere. This sphere is called sphere
of molecular activity or sphere of influence. In order to understand the tension acting at the free surface of
liquid, let us consider four liquid molecules A, B, C and D along with their spheres of molecular activity.
Liquid surface
A B
C
X C Y
Net downward
force Zero resultant
D force
P

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-15

(a) According to figure sphere D is completely inside liquid. So, molecule is attracted equally in all directions
and hence resultant cohesive force is equal to zero.
(b) According to figure, sphere of molecule C is just below the liquid surface. So resultant cohesive force is
equal to zero.
(c) The molecule B which is a little below the liquid surface is attracted downwards due to excess of molecules
present below. Hence the resultant cohesive force is acting downwards.
(d) Molecule A is situated at the surface so that its sphere of molecular activity is half outside the liquid and
half inside. Only lower portion has liquid molecules. Hence it experiences a maximum downward force. Thus,
all the molecules situated between the surface and a plane XY, distant C below the surface, experience a
resultant downward cohesive force.
When the surface area of liquid is increased molecules from the interior of the liquid rise to the surface. As these
molecules reach close to the surface, work is done against the downward cohesive force. This work is stored in
the molecules in the form of potential energy. Thus, the potential energy of the molecules lying close to the
surface is greater than that of the molecules in the interior of the liquid. A system is in stable equilibrium when
its potential energy is minimum. Hence in order to have minimum potential energy the liquid surface tends to
have minimum number of molecules. In other words, any surface tends to contract to a minimum possible area.
This tendency is exhibited as surface tension.

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 Mathematical Formula of Surface Tension
Part -16

Surface Tension
The force acting per unit length on one side of an imaginary line drawn on the free liquid surface at right angles
to the line and in the plane of liquid surface, is defined as surface tension.
Let an imaginary line AB be drawn in any direction on a liquid surface. The surface on either side of this line
exerts a pulling force, which is perpendicular to line AB. If force is F and length of AB is L then surface tension
F
T=
L

SI UNITS : N/m and J/m2

CGS UNITS : dyne/cm and erg/cm2
Dimensions : [M1L0 T–2]

Illustration 1.
A stick of length 5 cm is floating on the surface of water. If one side of it has surface tension of 70 dyne/cm and
on the other side by keeping a piece of camphor the surface tension is reduced to 50 dyne/cm, then find the
resultant force (in dyne) acting on the stick.
Solution.
Fnet = F1 – F2
= (T1 – T2)
= (70 – 50) 5
= 100 dyne

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 Bodies on Liquid Surface
Part -17

Floatation of bodies due to surface tension

(i) When a needle floats on the liquid surface then 2T sin = Mg

Special Case : -
Maximum mass of needle which can float on the liquid surface
In this case –
 = 90°
 2T =Mmaxg
 M max 2T
g
(ii) If the needle is lifted from the liquid surface then required excess force will be F excess = 2T 

Minimum force required Fmin = Mg + 2T

(iii) Required excess force for a square frame of side
Fexcess = 8 T ×

(iv) Required excess force for a square lamina of side

Fexcess = 4 T × 

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-17

(v) Required excess force for a rectangular frame of length and width b
Fexcess = 4 T ( +b)
(vi) Required excess force for a rectangular lamina of length and width b
Fexcess = 2 T ( +b)
(vii) Required excess force for a circular thick ring (or annular ring) having internal and external radii r 1 and r2 is
dipped in and taken out from liquid. Fexcess = F1 + F2 = T(2 r1) + T(2 r2) = 2T(r1 + r2).

(viii) Required excess force for a circular ring (r1 = r2 = r)

Fexcess = 2 T(r + r) = 4rT.

(ix) Required excess force for a circular disc (r1 = 0, r2 = r)

Fexcess = 2rT

Dependency of Surface Tension

• On Cohesive Force
Those factors which increase the cohesive force between molecules increase the surface tension and those which
decrease the cohesive force between molecules decrease the surface tension.
• On Impurities
If the impurity is completely soluble then on dissolving it in the liquid, its surface tension increases. e.g., on
dissolving ionic salts in small quantities in a liquid, its surface tension increases. If the impurity is partially soluble
in a liquid then its surface tension decreases because adhesive force between insoluble impurity molecules and
liquid molecules decreases cohesive force effectively, e.g.
On mixing detergent in water its surface tension decreases.
• On Temperature
On increasing temperature surface tension decreases. At critical temperature and boiling point it becomes zero.
Note : Surface tension of water is maximum at 4°C.
• On Contamination

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-17

Dust particles or lubricating materials on the liquid surface decrease its surface tension.
Effects of surface tension
(i) Small liquid drops and soap bubbles are spherical.
(ii) The hairs of the brush remain separated from each other inside water, but when the brush is taken out, the
hairs stick together.
(iii) Floatation of needle on water.
(iv) Formation of lead shots.
(v) Dirty clothes become clean in hot detergent solution in comparison to pure water at room temperature.

Illustration 1.
The length of a needle floating on water is 2.5 cm. Calculate the additional force required to pull the needle out
of water. [ T = 7.2 × 10–2 N/m]
Solution.
F = T (2 )
F = (7.2 × 10–2) (2 × 2.5 × 10–2)
F = 3.6 × 10–3 N

Illustration 2.
Find the maximum weight of needle which can float on water having surface tension 0.05 N/m. Length of needle is
1 cm.
Solution.
Wmax = 2T = 2 (0.05) (1×10–2) = 1 × 10–3 N

Illustration 3.
If a soap film is formed on the frame then find the radius of the wire to maintain equilibrium.
5
kg
10 N 3 10m
Surface tension of soap solution = 5 , Density of wire = ,g
m m3 s2

Solution.
At equilibrium →
Mg = 2T 
(r2 )g = 2T
2T
r= = 1.4 × 10–2 m = 1.4 cm
g

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 Surface Energy
Part -18

Surface Energy
According to molecular theory of surface tension the molecules on the surface have certain additional energy
due to their position. This additional energy of the surface is called "Surface energy".
D C

F = 2T

A B

dx


Let a liquid film be formed on a wire frame and a straight wire of length can slide on this wire frame as shown
in figure. The film has two surfaces and both the surfaces are in contact with the sliding wire and hence, exert
forces of surface tension on it. If T be the surface tension of the solution, each surface will pull the wire parallel
to itself with a force T . Thus, the net force on the wire due to both the surfaces is 2T .
Apply an external force F equal and opposite to it to keep the wire in equilibrium. Thus, F=2T
Now, suppose the wire is moved through a small distance dx, then work done by the force is
dW = F dx = (2T ) dx
But (2 ) (dx) is the total increase in area of both the surfaces of the film. Let it be dA
then dW = T dA ⇒ T = dW/dA
Thus, the surface tension T can also be defined as the work done in increasing the surface area by unity.
Further, since there is no change in kinetic energy, work done by the external force is stored as potential energy
dU
of the new surface. T [as dW = dU]
dA
Special Cases
Work done in blowing of small drop of radius r1 to large drop of radius r2.
W = T × ∆A or W = T × (4πr22 – 4πr12 ) = 4πT(r22 – r12 )

Work done in blowing of small bubble of radius r1 to large bubble of radius r2.
W = T × ∆A or W = T × 2 × (4πr22 – 4πr12 ) = 8πT(r22 – r12 )
Work done (surface energy) in formation of a drop of radius r :-
W = T × ∆A = T × 4πr2 = 4πr2T
Work done (surface energy) in blowing of a soap bubble of radius r :-
W = T × ∆A = T × 2 × 4πr2 = 8πr2T

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-18

Splitting of big drop into smaller droplets

If a big a drop is split into smaller droplets then in this process volume of liquid always remain conserved. Let
the big drop have a radius R. It is splitted into n smaller drops of radius r then by conservation of volume

R
⇒
n

3
4 4  R  R
(i) R 3 = n  r 3   n =    r = 1
3 3  r
n3
(ii) Initial surface area = 4πR2 and final surface area = n(4r2)
Change in area A = n4r2 – 4R2 = 4 (nr2 – R2).
Therefore the amount of surface energy absorbed i.e. ΔE = Ef – Ei = 4T(nr2 – R2)
∴ Magnitude of work done against surface tension i.e. W = 4(nr2 – R2)T

R  1 
W = 4T (nr2 – R2) = 4R2 (n1/3 – 1) = 4R2T  − 1  W = 4R 3T  − 
r  r R 
Initial surface energy Ei = 4R2T and final surface energy Ef = n(4r2T)
(S.E)f TAf
=
(S.E)i TAi

(S.E)f n(4r2 )
=
(S.E)i 4R 2
2
(S.E)f r
= n 
(S.E)i R
(S.E)f  1 
= n  2/3 
(S.E)i n 
(S.E)f 1
=
(S.E)i n1/3

In this process area increases, surface energy increases, internal energy decreases, temperature decreases, and
energy is absorbed.
S. A. ↑→ S. E. ↑→ I. E. ↓→ Temp ↓→ Energy Absorbed
1 1 4R 3T  1 1  3T  1 1 
W = Jms = 4R3T  −    =
4  − =  − 
r R  R 3 Js  r R  Js  r R 
3
Where  = liquid density, s = specific heat of liquid, J = Joule's constant
Thus, in this process area increases, surface energy increases, internal energy decreases, temperature decreases,
and energy is absorbed.

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-18

Droplets are coalesce to form a big drop

W = 4R2 T (n1/3 – 1)

(S.E)f
= n1/3
(S.E)i

S. A. ↓→ S. E. ↓→ I. E. ↑→ Temp ↑→ Energy Released

Thus, in this process surface area decreases, surface energy decreases, internal energy increases, temperature

increases, and energy is released.

Illustration 1.
If work done required to displace a movable wire by 2cm is 6 × 10–4J. Then find out surface tension of the soap
Solution.
Soap film Movable wire

4 cm

3 cm
W = T(2A)
W
T=
2 A
6  10 −4
=
2[20  10 −4 − 12  10 −4 ]
6 3
= = = 0.375 N/m
28 8

Illustration 2.
Calculate work done required to increase the area of a rectangular film of liquid from (4cm × 5cm) to (5cm × 6cm).
(surface tension of the liquid is 0.3 N/m)
Solution.
W = T(2A)
= 0.3 × 2 × (30 × 10–4 –20 × 10–4)
= 6×10–4 J

Illustration 3.
If a big drop of radius R spitted into 27 identical small droplets. Then find out work done in this process.
Solution.
W = 4R2T [n1/3–1]
= 4R2T [ (27)1/3 –1]
= 8R2T

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-18

Illustration 4.
If a drop of mercury having radius 1 cm is broken into 10 6 identical small droplets. If surface tension of
mercury is 35×10 –3 N/m, then find out work done in this process.
Solution.
W = 4πR2T [ n1/3 –1]
22
=4× × (10–2)2 × 35 × 10–3 (100 – 1)
7
= 4.35 × 10–3J

Illustration 5.
A big drop of radius 1 cm is converted into 1000 small identical droplets. If surface tension of liquid is
70 dyne/ cm. Then find out -
(1) radius of small drop
(2) work done required
(3) ratio of final surface energy to initial surface energy.
Solution.
1
R 1cm
(1) = n3  = 10  r = 0.1 cm
r r
(2) W.D. = 4πR2T (n1/3 – 1)
22 2
=4× (1) × 70 × (10 – 1)
7
= 7920 erg.
1
SFf n  4r 2 T
(3) = = n 3
= 10
SE i 4R 2 T

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 Excess Pressure
Part -19

Excess pressure inside a curved liquid surface

The pressure on the concave side of curved liquid surface is greater than that on the convex side. Therefore, a
pressure difference exists across two sides of a curved surface. This pressure difference is called excess pressure.
(i) Excess pressure inside the drop

2RT
(Pi–P0)R2

For equilibrium of
hemispherical drop

2T 2T
2RT = (Pi – P0)R2 or (Pi – P0) = Pex =
R R
(ii) Excess pressure inside a soap bubble :

4RT
(Pi–P0)R2

For equilibrium of
hemispherical bubble

4T 4T
4RT = (Pi – P0)R2 or (Pi – P0) = Pex =
R R
Special Cases :
(i) Two unequal soap bubbles are formed one on each side of a tube closed in the middle by a tap. When the
tap is opened, then:-

4T
PA = P0 + ;
r

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-19

4T
PB = P0 + {P0 = atmospheric pressure}.
R
Clearly PA > PB ; so air will flow from A to B.
Ultimately bubble A becomes smaller and bubble B becomes bigger in size.
(ii) Total pressure inside an air bubble in liquid

Pin = Pout + Pex Pin = Pout + Pex

2T 2T
Pin = Pout + Pin = Pout +
R R
2T 2T
Pin = Po + Pin = Po + gh +
R R
(iii) Total pressure inside a cavity or air bubble in liquid
2T
Pexcess = Pin – Pout = gh + ( density of liquid)
R
2T
Pinside = Patm + ρgh +
R
(iv) If two bubbles of radii r1 and r2 coalesce isothermally in vacuum then the radius of the new bubble will be:
When two bubbles coalesce then total number of molecules of air will remain same and temperature will

also remain constant

4T  4 3  4T  4 3  4T  4 3 
So n1 + n2 = n  P1 V1 + P2V2 = PV   r1  + 2  r2  =  r   r = r1 + r2
2 2

r1  3  r2  3  r 3 
(v) If two bubbles of radii r1 and r2 (r1 < r2) come in contact with each other then the radius of curvature of the

common surface:
∵ r1 < r 2

∴ P1 > P2 Small portion of bubbles is in contact and in equilibrium

4T 4T 4T 4T rr
 P1 – P2 =  − = r = 1 2
r r1 r2 r r2 − r1

r2 r2 P1 P2

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-19

Illustration 1.
If the excess pressure inside two soap bubbles are 1.02 atm and 1.03 atm respectively. Find ratio of their volumes.
Solution.
(Pex )1 (Pin − Pout )1 1.02 − 1 2
= = =
(Pex ) 2 (Pin − Pout ) 2 1.03 − 1 3
4T
r1 2 r 3
=  1 =
4T 3 r2 2
r2
3
V1  3  27
 =  =
V2  2  8

Illustration 2.
The excess pressure inside an air bubble of radius r just below the surface of water is P1. The excess pressure
inside a drop of the same radius just outside the surface is P2. If T is surface tension, then find the relation
between P1 and P2.
Solution.
2T
Excess pressure in air bubble just below the water surface. P1 =
r
2T
Excess pressure inside a drop P2 =
r
So P1 = P2

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 Angle of Contact (𝛉𝐂 )
Part -20

Angle of Contact (C)

The angle enclosed between the tangent plane at the liquid surface and the tangent plane at the solid surface
at the point of contact inside the liquid is defined as the angle of contact. The angle of contact depends on the
nature of the solid and liquid in contact

θC θC θC
θC < 90° θC > 90° θC = 90°

Some important angle of contact-

(i) Pure water and glass : → 0°
(ii) Ordinary water and glass : → 8° to 18°
(iii) Water and silver : → 90°
(iv) Mercury and glass : → 138°

Shape of Liquid Surface (Shape of meniscus)

When a liquid is brought in contact with a solid surface, the surface of the liquid becomes curved near the place
of contact. The shape of the surface (concave or convex) depends upon the relative magnitude of cohesive force
between the liquid molecules and the adhesive force between the molecules of the liquid and the solid.
The free surface of a liquid which is near the walls of a vessel and which is curved because of surface tension is
known as meniscus. The cohesive force acts at an angle of 45° from liquid surface whereas the adhesive force
acts at right angles to the solid surface.

The relation between the shape of liquid surface, cohesive/adhesive forces, angle of contact, etc. are summarized
in the table below :
Relation between cohesive and adhesive force

Convex surface
Concave Surface Horizontal surface
FA FA
FA

FC
FC FC
FR FR FR
Water Water mercury
FC
FA > glass FC FC glass
√2 FA = Silver FA <
√2 √2

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-20

Shape of meniscus Concave Plane Convex

Angle of contact C < 90°(Acute angle) C = 90° (Right angle) C > 90° (Obtuse angle)

Shape of liquid drop

θC
θC θC

Level of liquid Liquid rises up Liquid neither rises nor falls Liquid falls
Wetting property Liquid wets the solid Liquid does not wet the Liquid does not wet the solid
surface solid surface surface
Example Glass – Water Silver – Water Glass – Mercury

Dependency of Angle of Contact

(i) Effect of Temperature on angle of contact
 1
On increasing temperature surface tension decreases, thus cosC  cos C   decreases and c
T
 
increases. So on increasing temperature, c decreases.
(ii) Effect of Impurities on angle of contact
(a) Soluble impurities increase surface tension, so cosc decreases and angle of contact c increases.
(b) Partially soluble impurities decrease the surface tension, so angle of contact θc decreases.
(iii) Effect of Water Proofing Agent
Angle of contact increases due to the presence of water proofing agent. It changes from acute to obtuse
angle.

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 Capillary Tube and Capillarity
Part -21

Capillary Tube and Capillarity

A glass tube with a fine bore and open at both ends is known as a capillary tube. The property by virtue of which
a liquid rises or gets depressed in a capillary tube is known as capillarity. Rise or fall of liquid in tubes of narrow
bore (capillary tube) is called capillary action.
Ex. : (i) Kerosene oil in lanterns rise upward due to capillarity.
(ii) Working of fountain pen's nib split due to capillarity.

Calculation of Capillary Rise Patm

Enlarged view
(i) Pressure Balance Method :
Patm
When a capillary tube is first dipped in a liquid as shown in the ↓ PC h R
figure, the liquid climbs up the walls curving the surface. Let the C
radius of the meniscus be R and the radius of the capillary tube A B

be r. Angle of contact is C, surface tension is T, density of liquid C PC

is  and the liquid rises to a height h. R = Radius of the r
R=
meniscus cos θ
Now let us consider two points A and B at the same horizontal level as shown. By Pascal's law
PA = PB  PA = PC + gh
Now, point C is on the curved meniscus which has Patm and PC as the pressures on its concave and convex sides
respectively.
 2T  2T 2T cos C
 Patm =  Patm −  + hg  h = =
 R  R g rg

(ii) Force Balance Method

The liquid continues to rise in the capillary tube until the weight of the liquid column becomes equal to force
due to surface tension.
On liquid force due to surface tension = (2πr) TcosC

In equilibrium : force due to S.T = weight of rise liquid

(2r)TcosC = mg

(2r)TcosC = (r2h)g h
2T cos C F=(2r)TcosθC
h=
rg
mg

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-21

Special Points
(i) Zurin's Law :
The height of rise of liquid in a capillary tube is inversely proportional to the radius of the capillary tube, if
1
T, C, r and g are constant h  or rh = constant. It implies that liquid will rise more in capillary tube of
r
less radius and vice versa.
(ii) Inside a satellite, water will rise upto the top level but will not overflow and shape of meniscus will
be plane.
(iii) If a capillary tube is dipped into a liquid and tilted at an angle  from vertical then the vertical height of the
liquid column remains same whereas the length of liquid column in the capillary tube increases.


h l

h
h = ℓcosα ⇒ ℓ =
cosα

Illustration 1.
Water rise to a height of 10mm in a capillary. If the radius of the capillary is made half of its previous value then
what is the new value of the capillary rise?
Solution.
h 2 r1 r
= = =2
h 2 r2 (r / 2)
Hence h2 = 2h1 = 2 × 10 mm = 20 mm

Illustration 2.
Water rises in a vertical capillary tube upto a length of 10cm. If the tube is inclined at 45° with the vertical then
find the length of water rises in the tube.
Solution.
cos = h
h 10
 = = 10 2 cm
cos 45º (1/ 2)

Illustration 3.
In a capillary tube experiment, a vertical 30 cm long capillary is dipped in water. The water rises upto a height
of 10cm due to capillary action. If this experiment is conducted in a freely falling elevator, what will be the length
of water column.
Solution.
Liquid will rise upto top of the tube
 h' = 30 cm

Illustration 4.

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-21

Two capillary tubes of same material of a radius r1 and r2 are vertically immersed in the same liquid, then
find -
(1) Ratio of height of liquid rise
(2) Ratio of mass of liquid rise
(3) Ratio of potential energy of liquid rise
Solution.
(1) By Zurin's law –
h1r1 = h2r2
h1 r2
 =
h 2 r1

m1   V1  ( r1 ) h1 r1
2

(2) = = =
m2   V2  ( r12 ) h 2 r2
(3) When water rises upto a height h then mass of liquid rise m = (r2h)
h
 Total mass be located at centre of mass, then potential energy U = mg
2
h 
m1g  1 
( P.E.)1  2  =  m1  h1  = 1
=   
( P.E.)2  h 2   m 2  h 2 
m2g  
 2 
Illustration 5.
A U-tube is supported with its vertical limbs and is partially filled with water. If internal diameters of the limbs
are 1cm and 0.5 cm respectively. What will be the difference in heights of water in the two limbs ?
(Surface tension of water is 70 dyne/cm, density of water is 1gm/cc, g =1000 cm/s 2)
Solution.
Let h1 and h2 be the height of water columns in the limbs of radii r1 and r2.
Therefore, difference in height = h2 – h1
2T cos c 2T cos c
= −
r1g r2g
2T cos c  1 1 
=  − 
g  r1 r2 
 
2 (70)(1)  1 1 
=  −  = 0.28cm
(1)(1000)  0.5 1 
 2 2
Illustration 6.
In a cylindrical vessel at its bottom a round hole of diameter 1mm is drilled and water is filled in it. Find the
maximum height to which water can be filled in it without leakage. (Surface tension of water is 75 × 10–3 N/m,
density of water is 1000 kg/m3 and angle of contact is 0°)
Solution.
Water will start leaking out when
(hg)r2= T (2r)
2T
h=
gr
2  75 10−3
h =
1000 10  0.5  10−3
= 3 × 10–2 m
= 3 cm

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 Newton's Law of Viscosity
Part -22

Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of a fluid (liquid or gas) by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion between its
adjacent layers. It is the fluid friction or internal friction.
The internal tangential force which tends to retard the relative motion between the adjacent layers is called
viscous force.

Newton's law of viscosity

vx+ vx

y + y vx
y

Vx
The rate of change of velocity with distance perpendicular to the direction of flow i.e. , is called velocity
y
gradient.
According to Newton, the viscous force F acting between two adjacent layers of a liquid flowing in streamlined
motion depends upon the following two factors :
(i) F  contact area of the layers i.e F  A
v x
(ii) F  velocity gradient between the layers i.e F 
y
v x v x
Combining (i) and (ii) FA  F = A
y y
where  is a constant called coefficient of viscosity of the liquid.
F / A Shear stress
Coefficient of viscosity  = =
v/ Strain rate
SI UNITS : N – sm–2 = Pa-s = poiseuille (PI) = deca poise
CGS UNITS : dyne-s/cm2 = poise; 1 decapoise = 10 poise.
Dimensions : [M L T ]
1 –1 –1

Important points
(i) Viscosity of fluid depends only on the nature of fluid and is independent of area considered or velocity
gradient.
(ii) Thin liquids like water, alcohol are less viscous than thick liquids like blood, glycerin, honey.
(iii) Viscosity of liquid is much greater (about 100 times more) than that of gases. Viscosity of water  0.01 poise,
Viscosity of air  200µpoise

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 Stoke's Law and Terminal Velocity
Part -23

Stoke's Law and Terminal Velocity

Stoke's Law
Stoke showed that if a small sphere of radius r is moving with a velocity v through a homogeneous stationary
medium (liquid or gas), of viscosity  then the viscous force acting on the sphere is F v = 6rv.

Terminal Velocity
When a solid sphere falls in a liquid, its increasing velocity is controlled by the viscous force due to liquid and
hence it attains a constant velocity which is known as the terminal velocity (v T).

4 3
Th = r g
3

FV = 6rvT

Density = 

4
W = r 3g
3

As shown in the figure when the body moves with constant velocity i.e. terminal velocity (with no acceleration)
the net upward force (upthrust Th + viscous force Fv) balances the downward force (weight of the body W).
2 r ( − )
2
4 4
Therefore Th + Fv = W  r3g + 6rv T = r3g  v T = g
3 3 9 
where r = radius of body  = density of body
 = density of medium  = coefficient of viscosity.

Graph
The variation of velocity with time (or distance) is shown in the adjacent graphs.
Case 1 : When initial velocity of body in medium is zero

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-23

vt

Distance or time

Case 2 : When initial velocity of body in medium is greater than vt

v

vt

O Distance or time

Some applications of terminal velocity:

(a) Actual velocity of rain drops is very small in comparison to the velocity which would have acquired by a
body falling freely from the height of clouds.
(b) Descent of a parachute with moderate velocity.
(c) Determination of electronic charge in Milikan's oil drop experiment.

Illustration 1.
Two balls made of same material having masses m and 8m respectively. Then find ratio of their terminal velocity
in same liquid.
Solution.
m  r3 vT  r 2
3 2
m r  vT1 r 
 1 = 1   = 1 
m2  r2  vT2  r2 
1 2
r  m 3 1 vT1 1 1
 1 =  =  =  =
r2  8m  2 vT2 2 4

Illustration 2.
If the terminal speed of a sphere of gold is 0.4 m/s in a viscous liquid. Then find the terminal speed of a sphere
of copper of the same size in the same liquid.
Given gold = 13g / cc
copper = 8g / cc
liquid = 3g / cc
Solution.
vT  (b − )
VT1 gold − liquid
 =
VT2 copper − liquid

0.4 13 − 3
 =  vT2 = 0.2m / s
vT2 8 − 3

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-23

Illustration 3.
If terminal velocity of a drop is 10 m/sec in a fluid then find the terminal velocity of a big drop formed by 64
identical such drops:

64 identical small drops Big drop

(each of radius = r) (radius = R)

Solution.
By volume conservation
4 4
 r 3  64 = R 3  R = 4r
3 3
Terminal speed v T  r 2
2
vT1 r 
 = 1 
vT2  r2 
2
10  r 
 =    v T = 160m / s
vT2  4r  2

Illustration 4.
A ball rises to surface at a constant velocity in a liquid whose density is 6 times than that of the material of the
ball. Find the ratio of the force of friction acting on the rising ball and its weight.
Solution.
Viscous force acting downward = effective force in upward direction
= Th –W
=  vg − bvg
= ( 6 ) vg − vg
= 5vg
Fv 5vg 
 = =
W vg 1

Illustration 5.
A tiny sphere of mass 2kg and density 5g/cc is dropped in a jar of glycerine of density 3g/cc. When the sphere
acquires terminal velocity, then find the magnitude of the viscous force acting on the sphere.
Solution.

Th + Fv = W
 Fv = W –Th

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Mechanical Properties of Fluids Part-23

(
= mg −  Vg g )
m
= mg −  g
b
  
= mg 1 − 
 b 
 3
= 2  10 1 − 
 5
= 8N

Illustration 6.
A drop of water of radius 0.0015 mm is falling in air. The co-efficient of viscosity of air is 1.8 × 10–5 kg/m-s. What
will be the terminal velocity of the drop? density of air can be neglected.
Solution.
2
15  10−4  3
2
2     10  9.8
2r ( − )g  1000 
vT = = −5
= 2.72  10−4 m / s
9 9  1.8  10

Illustration 7.
The velocity of a small ball of mass M and density d1, when dropped in a container filled with glycerine becomes
constant after some time. If the density of glycerine is d2, the viscous force acting on the ball will be :
Solution.
At equilibrium, the viscous force acting upward = Effective force downward
M  d   M
Effective force = Vd1g – Vd2g = V(d1 – d2)g = (d1 – d2)g = Mg 1 − 2   V= 
d1  d1   d1 

Illustration 8.
A spherical ball of radius 1 × 10–4 m and density 104 kg/m3 falls freely under gravity through a distance h before
entering a tank of water. If the velocity of the ball does not change, after entering the water find h. Viscosity of
water is 9.8 × 10–6 N-s/m2.
Solution.
After falling a height h velocity of the ball will become v = 2gh . After entering into the water as this velocity
does not change, this velocity is equal to the terminal velocity,
2  −  
2gh = r 2  g
9   
2
2 (104 − 103 ) 9.8 
2gh =   (10−4 )2  
9 9.8  10−6 
20  20
 h= = 20.41m
2  9.8

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 Reynold's Number and Poiseuille's Equation
Part -24

Reynold's Number (Re)

The type of flow pattern (laminar or turbulent) is determined by a non-dimensional number called Reynold's
number (Re). defined as
Inertialforce vd
Re = =
Viscous force 
where  is the density of the fluid having viscosity  and flowing with a mean speed v. Here d denotes
the lateral dimension of the obstacle or boundary of fluid flow.
Although there is no perfect demarcation for the value of Re in case of laminar and turbulent flow but certain
references take the value as :
Re <1000 >2000 Between 1000 to 2000
Type of flow Laminar Turbulent Either Laminar or Turbulent

Upon increasing the speed of flow gradually transition from laminar flow to turbulent flow takes place at certain
speed. This speed is called critical speed. For fluids with lower density and higher viscosity laminar flow is more
probable.

Dependency of viscosity
(i) On Temperature of Fluid
(a) Since cohesive forces decrease with increase in temperature. Viscosity of liquids decreases with a rise in
temperature.
(b) Viscosity of gases is the result of diffusion of gas molecules from one moving layer to other. With an increase
in temperature, the rate of diffusion increases. Consequently the viscosity increases. Thus, the viscosity of
gases increases with the rise in temperature.
(ii) On Pressure of Fluid
(a) Viscosity is normally independent of pressure. However liquids under extreme pressure often undergo an
increase in viscosity.
(b) Viscosity of gases is practically independent of pressure.

Steady flow in capillary tube

Poiseuille's Formula
In case of steady flow of liquid of viscosity () in a capillary tube of length (L) and radius (r) under a pressure
difference (P) across it, the volume of liquid flowing per second is given by
dV  Pr 4
Q= =
dt 8L
With the help of poiseuille's formula, coefficient of viscosity of a liquid can be determined.

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