Sustainable Construction Methods and Processes

Qian Chen, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States
Ó 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction

Along with the increasing attention given to the control of buildings’ energy demands and environmental impacts, the green
building movement is gaining momentum worldwide. Various rating systems such as BREEAM, LEED (Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design), and Green Globes have emerged to help guide the design and construction of green buildings. While
most of the sustainable decisions on green building development are made during the project planning and design stages, the
employed construction methods and processes also play an important role in reducing buildings’ environmental impacts during
and beyond the construction stage.
This article describes sustainable (also referred to as “green”) construction methods and processes that can be adopted to not
only meet the requirements from green building rating systems, but also improve the sustainability of the construction industry
by lowering the overall environmental impacts of construction activities. Although the discussions and examples in this article
are centered on the U.S. practice, they are generally applicable to other countries and regions as well.

Background of Green Construction

In Glavinich’s book titled “Contractors Guide to Green Building Construction: Management, Project Delivery, Documentation, and
Risk Reduction,” green construction is defined as planning and managing a construction project in accordance with the contract
documents to minimize the impact of the construction process on the environment (Glavinich, 2008). According to U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics, green construction is the practice of erecting buildings and using processes that are environmentally responsible
and resource efficient. McGraw Hill Construction (2010) estimated that the value of the green nonresidential building market
would reach US $120–145 billion by 2015. The projection provided by the U.S. Green Building Council’s (USGBC) 2009 Green
Jobs Study shows that green construction supported approximately 3.3 million workers during 2009–13 without including employ-
ment for suppliers of green building materials and products, a big growth compared to 1 million workers between 2000 and 2008.
While the green building movement has become the mainstream of the U.S. construction industry, greater opportunities are
given to contractors that have already taken a proactive approach to green construction practice. A contractor or project management
firm’s previous green project experience and knowledge is usually favorably considered during the contracting stage of green
building projects. Engineering News Records published its 2011 “Top 100 Green Contractors list.” In 2010, these contractors gener-
ated around $45 billion revenue from green projects, representing 38.8% of this group’s total contracting revenue. The number
increased to approximately $53 billion in 2015. In the organization of the Turner Corp., which ranked number one on this list
for multiple years, there are 1477 employees accredited by various green building or green construction training and certification
programs, for example, LEED, Green Advantage, etc.
Although many contractors could experience a steep learning curve when working on their earliest LEED projects, with increased
project experience and acceptance, they started to expand green and sustainable practices they have learned from LEED projects into
other non-LEED projects. Their goal is to standardize their construction approaches based on green construction best management
practices. This will not only strengthen their competitive edge, but also help them comply with more and more stringent environ-
mental laws and regulations that govern construction activities.

LEED Green Building Rating System

Designing and constructing a green building is not an easy and simple task. First, different green building technologies and products
are available on market. Simply combining them will not automatically lead to a high-performance building, which needs a systems
approach. Second, it is hard to know how green a building is, as well as to compare green buildings with each other across a number
of sustainable areas. Therefore, various green building rating systems have been developed worldwide to help guide the green
building practice.
USGBC, as a nonprofit organization, was formed in 1993 to define and promote green building. A main product of USGBC is the
LEED rating system, which was developed in an open consensus-based process with input from building industry professionals and
experts from U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), and other related agencies and organi-
zations. In recent years, both the USGBC membership and the LEED program grew quickly.
So far the LEED rating system has become the nationally accepted benchmark for the design, construction, and operation of high-
performance green buildings. It is also the most widely applied green building rating system in the U.S. USGBC announced that by July
2015, there were 53,908 LEED-Certified and LEED-Registered projects in the United States, and LEED had also expanded into many
other countries such as Canada, China, India, etc. In addition to providing a certification program for buildings, USGBC also offers
a professional accreditation program to distinguish building professionals with the knowledge and skills to successfully steward the
LEED certification process. Currently, this accreditation program is administered by the Green Business Certification Inc. (GBCI).

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322 Sustainable Construction Methods and Processes

Green Design Charrette

In recent years, design charrette has become a more standard element in the development of green building projects. Design charr-
ette is an intensive and integrated design workshop held during the design process (ideally no later than the design development
phase and preferably during schematic design) with the participation of multidisciplinary project team members and various stake-
holders that may include the building owner and users. According to the project complexity, the workshop may run one full-day or
even multiple days to brainstorm ideas, evaluate benefits and tradeoffs of proposed strategies, solve specific design problems, and/
or generate alternative designs. The adoption of innovative project procurement methods, including design-build, construction
management at risk, design-assist contracting, integrated project delivery, etc., allows the early involvement of contractors in the
design phase. As a result, their participation in the design charrette offers great benefits to a green project development by incorpo-
rating constructability and cost/time impact considerations related to the proposed green building technologies and strategies into
the design.
Fig. 1 shows the setting of a green design charrette held for a mixed housing development project that aimed to earn the LEED for
Neighborhood Development certification. The main purpose of this workshop was to brainstorm ideas and set priorities for poten-
tial LEED credits and strategies that would be pursued by this project based on the insights and feedback from project team
members. The civil engineer hired for this project worked as the facilitator for this workshop. White papers posted on the wall
were used to record ideas raised by the participants.

Construction Pollution Prevention

Stormwater Runoff From Construction Sites
Excavation is one of the main activities in the beginning of construction. Excavation severely interrupts and damages the ground
surface and bio-environment on the site (see Fig. 2). If not protected properly, stormwater running off a construction site with sedi-
ment and other pollutants could harm our lakes, streams, and wetlands (see Fig. 3). So construction activity pollution prevention

Fig. 1 A green design charrette.

Fig. 2 Exposed soils on a construction site. Courtesy of Ramsey County.

 Sustainable Construction Methods and Processes 323

Fig. 3 Stormwater runoff from a construction site. Courtesy of Monroe County.

becomes one prerequisite to LEED certification, which intends to reduce pollution from construction activities by controlling soil
erosion, waterway sedimentation, and airborne dust generation.
The main strategy to control stormwater runoff from construction sites is to create an Erosion and Sedimentation Control Plan
during the design phase by civil engineers. A collaborative effort from the civil engineer and landscape architect would be beneficial
as some control measures could be incorporated into permanent landscape of the building project. This saves money and project
time. During construction, contractors will work with the designers to implement the plan. In fact, the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) construction general permit issued by the state EPA also requires that construction sites disturbing
one acre or larger land have a site-specific Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plan (SWPPP) for their stormwater discharges.
The erosion and sedimentation control measures fall into two primary categories: stabilization and structural control. The
former focuses more on erosion control and the latter is more toward sedimentation control. Typical stabilization control measures
include temporary seeding by planting fast-growing grasses or permanent seeding by planting grass, trees, and shrubs that will be
part of the building’s landscape. Another easy way could be providing mulching by placing hay, grass, woodchips, straw, or gravel
on the soil surface to cover and hold soils in place. This option does not cost too much. Examples of structural control measures may
include, but are not limited to:
l Earth dike constructed to direct stormwater into sediment traps or sediment basins
l Silt fence using a filter fabric media to remove sediments from stormwater volumes flowing through the fence
l Sediment trap or sediment basin created by excavating a pond area or constructing earthen embankments across a low area of
construction sites to allow for settling of sediments from stormwater volumes
l Sediment control measures using gravel or other filtering materials in front of outlets or storm drains

Usually, sediment traps are for small project sites. Sediment basins, ponds with a controlled water release structure, are typically
used on larger construction sites, that is, 5 acres (20,000 m2) or more with sufficient room. They are often used along with erosion
controls and other sediment control measures. It is not uncommon to see that a sediment basin is cleaned out and modified later on
to work as a permanent stormwater management system for the completed site, either as a detention basin (temporary storage of
excess stormwater) or a retention basin (stormwater stored indefinitely).

Washout Water
Besides stormwater running off construction sites, various types of wastewater may be discharged into our storm drains or
combined sewers if proper control measures are not put in place. Wastewater from construction sites could contain different
contaminants, which may pollute our surface water and groundwater. For example, concrete wash water (or called washout water,
i.e., wastewater coming from the cleaning process for concrete tools, ready-mix truck chutes, etc.) is alkaline and contains high levels
of metals such as chromium. When dumped on the ground, it could seep into groundwater or enter roadside storm drains and get
into streams, rivers, and lakes, resulting in the increased PH of surface waters and harming aquatic life. Therefore, such wastewater
cannot be directly discharged.
As required by USEPA, all the concrete washout water needs to be collected and retained in a leak-proof pit or container, which
can take various forms. Then the washout water (including liquid and solid waste) can be properly handled for recycling, treatment,
and disposal. The best management practices would allow 100% recycling of the collected washout water and solids, which not only
prevents water pollution, but also reduces waste sent to landfills. In addition, having dedicated washout areas and containment
facilities on construction sites represent good housekeeping, making the sites cleaner and safer.
324 Sustainable Construction Methods and Processes

Similarly, washout water for stucco, paint, form release oils, curing compounds, and other building materials cannot be directly
discharged and will need to be managed properly. For example, a paint washout and treatment system can turn paint washout into
recyclable clean water for related trade applications and solid waste, which can be easily disposed of as a nonhazardous waste after
drying. Contractors should incorporate the best management practices for washout wastes on construction sites in their SWPPP,
which complies with NPDES general permit or state stormwater discharge requirements.

Air Pollutants
Construction and demolition activities could produce various types of airborne pollutants, which adversely affect the air quality of
our environment. In the following, some typical air pollutants generated during the construction and demolition processes are
introduced, followed by proper prevention, mitigation, and control measures.
l Formaldehyde: A gas emitted from numerous indoor sources such as pressed wood products, cigarette smoke, and combustion
sources. It is known to be a carcinogen that causes cancer.
l Particulate matter (PM): Fine particles ranging from PM2.5 to PM10 can be generated in construction through cutting, crushing,
or grinding operations, fuel combustion in vehicle or equipment, and other sources. Increased levels of fine dusts in the air are
linked to asthma, heart disease, and lung cancer. PM pollution is estimated to cause 22,000–25,000 deaths per year in the United
States.
l Ozone: Gasoline- and diesel-powered equipment emissions.
l Total volatile organic compound: Off-gas from pressed wood products, carpets, paints, sealants, adhesives, etc.
l Carbon monoxide: A product of incomplete combustion such as vehicle exhaust.
Reducing or eliminating air pollutants associated with construction and demolition activities is crucial for maintaining good air
quality of the construction sites and nearby areas as well as protecting the health of working professionals on the job sites. Air
pollutants may also be trapped in the constructed buildings to impair indoor air quality (IAQ) for an extended period of time.
Therefore, addressing IAQ concerns becomes more critical, especially for green building projects.
A LEED project requires contractors to prepare a construction IAQ management plan to address five areas of concerns:
l Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system protection
l Contaminant source control
l Pathway interruption
l Housekeeping
l Scheduling and construction activity sequence

Some common strategies include, but are not limited to, the following:
l Carefully select building materials and finishes with lower emissions to improve IAQ for the completed buildings. For example,
paints, primers, adhesives, and sealants are usually major sources of indoor pollutants, which need to be replaced with low VOC
alternatives.
l Using various strategies to control airborne dust, such as treating soil surfaces that receive vehicle traffic, wet cutting, and using dust
collectors or vacuums. When chemical vapors are generated in construction areas, exhaust-to-outside ventilation should be used.
l Isolate construction activities from occupied areas with a floor-to-ceiling barrier during remodels or renovations. Particle filters
are needed for supply air intake and return air openings to protect the HVAC systems being used during construction.
l Cycle construction equipment off when not in use. Idling engines not only waste fuel but also contribute to noise and air
pollution. Mitigation devices such as diesel PM filters or diesel oxidation catalysts can be installed on construction equipment.
At the end of construction and before building occupancy, air testing can be performed to demonstrate that the maximum
concentration levels of targeted contaminants are not exceeded in the indoor environment of a LEED-registered building. Alterna-
tively, new building flush-out can be carried out before or during occupancy to remove air contaminants from indoor environments.
A full flush-out needs to supply a total air volume of 14,000 ft3 of outdoor air per square foot of floor area with proper internal
temperature ( 60 F but no higher than 80 F) and relative humidity ( 60%). The whole process takes about 1 month and
consumes a significant amount of energy. Projects with failed air test results will have to perform a flush-out as well.

Noise Pollution
Various construction activities can generate sounds (e.g., loud engines and alert beepers from construction vehicles, cutting, pile
driving, etc.), which could easily turn into unpleasant or even unbearable noises to nearby residents and businesses. For example,
the sound level in a suburb area is around 50 dB. But the pile driving activity can easily reach 100 dB or even higher. A 10 dB change
in the sound level represents an eightfold increase in power and a doubling of perceived loudness. In the following, noise preven-
tion and mitigation measures related to pile driving activities are discussed as an example.
Pile driving uses a mechanical device to drive piles into soil, which usually occurs during the foundation erection stage for build-
ings and other structures such as bridges. Pile driving not only produces noise, but also causes vibration, air pollution, and other
negative impacts associated with the use of heavy construction equipment.
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In 2000, the California Department of Transportation did a preliminary study to install steel test piles for the construction of San
Francisco Bay Bridge. These piles were over 300 ft long with a diameter of 8 ft. The testing process triggered intensive discussion on
the issue of pile driving noise impacts on fishes protected by the Endangered Species Act. The normal noise level in the bay area is
60–120 dB with moderate boat traffic. It may increase to 160 dB temporarily when large ships pass by. However, the unattenuated
pile strike produced a noise that could reach 200 dB constantly, leading to injuries and death of fishes.
In addition to limiting the construction and maintenance hours and applying mitigation measures to lower sound levels to meet
a city’s noise ordinance or a state’s noise restrictions, contractors can take a more proactive approach to addressing this issue via
alternative construction methods and processes. For example, using a vibratory pile driver can effectively reduce the noise level.
However, the rates of vibration need to be monitored and controlled, so that the nearby buildings, which may be sensitive to vibra-
tion, will not be adversely affected. Contractors can use some simple measures to monitor the settlement of nearby existing build-
ings during construction. There are also alternative foundation systems that could eliminate the needs for pile driving, for example,
using drilled caissons filled with concrete, or slurry walls dug out initially with a milling machine.

Construction Waste Management

Construction, demolition, and land clearing (CDL) waste accounts for 30% of our waste output. USEPA estimated that 170 million
tons of CDL waste was generated in 2003, and most of such waste went to landfill. With the increasing construction activities, the
amount of CDL waste continues to grow. Construction waste management is a very important part in the entire life cycle of green
buildings. First, reducing waste generated during the construction stage of a green building conserves natural resources while
increasing the efficiency of material utilization. Second, when a building is demolished near the end of its life cycle, we want to
maximize the reuse and recycling of building materials and components to retrieve the embedded energy. By reducing the waste
sent to landfills, we conserve our landfill space.
Construction waste management takes a systems approach, which can be displayed as a pyramid from waste prevention, mini-
mization, reuse, recycling, energy recovery, to disposal (see Fig. 4). While prevention is the most preferred option in construction
waste management, disposal is the least favorable way. The implementation of this approach requires preplanning from the
contractor side. Coordination with architects and potentially engineers can begin prior to construction. It should be noted that
all hazardous materials produced during construction and demolition activities are excluded from construction waste management
since they need special handling. Eliminating or reducing the use of hazardous materials in building construction will make the
waste management part much easier and safer.
The core strategy of construction waste management is represented by 3Rs: reduce, reuse, and recycle. In specific, to reduce waste,
we need to look for ways waste can be prevented before it is created. This happens in the design and early construction planning
stages. For example, the designers usually determine building dimensions based on the module to avoid frequent cutting of mate-
rials. Another strategy for waste prevention is to design spaces to be flexible and adaptable to changing needs. This reduces waste
generation during remodels. In residential construction, it is important to identify an ideal floor height to reduce the amount of
cutting for framing lumber and drywall. Contractors can also select precut, prefabricated components for onsite assembly.
To maximize reuse, contractors need to identify waste that can be salvaged for reuse on the current project or other projects they
perform. If a communication channel can be created between different contractors, then waste from one contractor’s project may be
able to be reused on another contractor’s project. Contractors can also donate their waste materials to, for example, Habitat for
Humanity, for reuse. The donated items are eligible for tax deductions. To maximize and facilitate material reuse and salvage, design
for deconstruction should be incorporated into the design stage.
For waste materials that cannot be reused, recycling is considered. The main tasks for contractors are to figure out what can be
recycled and where to recycle these materials. Material recycling can be handled through co-mingled recycling or source-separated
recycling. For co-mingled recycling, recyclable CDL materials are collected in one drop box as they are generated. Then the recycling
hauler takes the materials to a material recovery facility where they are sorted for recycling. In this way, contractors do not need to

Fig. 4 The systems approach for construction waste management. Adapted from the Waste Hierarchy diagram by Drstuey, S. (2008). The Waste
Hierarchy diagram. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Waste_hierarchy.svg (accessed on January 8, 2017).
326 Sustainable Construction Methods and Processes

provide a lot of recycling bins, dumpsters, and collection spaces. They can also save management cost and labor time needed to
separate the waste. Co-mingled recycling is suitable for major remodeling, renovation, or demolition projects. For source-
separated recycling, the recyclables are collected in separate drop boxes. Then, the recycling hauler takes the materials directly to
a recycling facility or transfer station. This recycling program is more suitable for new construction in which different waste materials
can be easily separated.
To perform successful waste management, contractors need to prepare a construction waste management plan ahead of time.
Project specifications normally provide a template for waste management plan, which covers the following items:
l Waste recycling or reuse goals
l Analysis of project waste including category and quantity
l Disposal methods
l Materials handling procedures, and
l Instructions for crew and subcontractors

Energy Conservation

Although energy used during the construction process for a building is much less than the energy that is going to be consumed
during the operation of the building throughout its life cycle, energy conservation during construction will still lower the environ-
mental impact of construction activities, and therefore should be encouraged.
This section will discuss some applicable energy conservation strategies for construction activities. Embedded energy in building
materials and the energy consumed by transporting building materials are topics receiving increasing attention nowadays. They fit
better under the life cycle assessment (LCA) discussion and are included in the next section.
Construction uses various power tools and fuel burning equipment (including construction vehicles, excavators, cranes, onsite
generators, etc.), which consume energy while producing air emissions. The most commonly used energy sources on the construc-
tion sites are electricity from the grid or onsite generation, natural gas, gasoline, and diesel fuel. Recent years have also seen the
arising use of renewable energy such as biofuel and solar. Efficiently managing and using these power tools and fuel burning
equipment can reduce their associated energy use, which also lowers their related air pollution. Common strategies include
cycling off vehicles and equipment that are not in use. As estimated, a large diesel engine can waste up to 1 gallon of fuel per
hour when it idles. Also, contractors can switch to more energy efficient power tools and equipment (e.g., ENERGY STAR labeled
equipment or alternative fuel equipment). It is not uncommon to see smaller construction equipment powered by solar energy
(Fig. 5).
Better planning and schedule management can avoid performing certain construction processes (e.g., masonry construction)
during the cold weather. As we know, cold weather masonry construction may require heating materials, work areas, and in-
place work, which could consume a large amount of energy. Also, superior construction IAQ control achieved by contractors
can significantly reduce air pollutants that could be trapped in the completed buildings. This may eliminate the needs for new
building flush-out, which is an energy intensive process.

Fig. 5 Small construction equipment powered by solar Photovoltaic (PV).

 Sustainable Construction Methods and Processes 327

Green Procurement and LCA

According to USGBC, buildings account for 40% of raw material use. Extracting, processing, and transportation of materials not
only consume natural resources, but also use energy and produce air and water pollutions. Increasing the efficiency in material utili-
zation is one of the main objectives of green building development. In addition, building materials and products installed affect
buildings’ performance, IAQ, and human health. Therefore, using green materials and products not only leads to high-
performance, healthy buildings but also helps protect our environment.
On today’s market, so many materials and products are labeled “green.” Is the claim for a green material or product trustable? If
multiple alternatives exist, which one is the greenest choice for a project? These are very important questions for a project team.
Understanding what actually makes a material or product green will help the decision-making process. According to Environmental
Building News, a leading newsletter on environmentally responsible design and construction published monthly in the United
States, green materials and products have one or more of the following characteristics:
l Made with salvaged, recycled, or agricultural waste content
l Conserving natural resources
l Saving energy and water
l Avoiding toxic or other emissions
l Contributing to a safe, healthy built environment

These criteria will help project team members select green materials and products for their projects. However, before adding
them into a project and ensuring the overall performance of the building, some other factors have to be considered: How much
budget is available for this project? Do the green materials and products to be selected have any tradeoffs? Sometimes, a product
is energy efficient, but may have negative environmental impact. For example, fluorescent lighting saves energy, but contains
mercury. Also, will these materials and products incur high maintenance costs? As a result, more comprehensive assessments,
for example, LCA, will need to be performed for materials and products used in green building projects.
According to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), LCA is a method that evaluates a product by reviewing the
ecological impact over the life of the product. It is also commonly called “cradle to the grave,” which follows the material from
where it is mined to where it is disposed of. LCA is a holistic approach. A complete LCA process consists of four phases: life cycle
scoping, life cycle inventory analysis, life cycle impact analysis, and life cycle improvement analysis. LCA is time and cost
consuming. Conducting a complete LCA for a complicated product might involve the entire economy. Therefore, using existing soft-
ware tools to perform LCA becomes a more practical approach. BEES and Athena are the most widely used LCA programs in North
America.
BEES, representing Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability, was developed by National Institute of Standards
and Technology (NIST) with support from USEPA’s Environmentally Friendly Purchasing Program. The U.S. Government is the
world’s largest consumer with an annual spending of over $240 billion in products and services. In order to promote sustainability,
it now requires a LCA from vendors before awarding federal purchasing preference to certain products. A BEES profile is often
needed for selecting cost-effective and environmentally preferable building products and designs. Fig. 6 shows how the assessment
is structured in BEES and Table 1 displays the overall result of a side-by-side comparison of three building products for interior floor
finishes generated by BEES. The results can also be shown in a graphical format.

Fig. 6 BEES model. Courtesy of NIST, U.S. Department of Commerce.

328 Sustainable Construction Methods and Processes

Table 1 LCA results from BEES in the tabular format

Category Linoleum NCFloating NylonTile

Economic performanced50.0% 5.8991 34.3169 9.7840

Environmental performanced50.0% 15.4665 3.3625 31.1710
Sum 21.3656 37.6794 40.9550

Note: Lower values are better.

ATHENA Impact Estimator for Buildings was developed by the Athena Institute in Canada. It can simulate more than 1000
different assembly combinations. Athena is the only software tool in North America that evaluates whole buildings and assemblies
based on LCA.
Ideally, the designer should complete a green building product screening process at the early project stage, so that all the relevant
requirements can be reflected in the specifications. However, if the screening process is not adequately performed by the designer,
the contractor has to take this responsibility. It is important for the contractor’s purchasing person to check green building product
requirements and understand green building product characteristics. Also, the purchasing person needs to consider building
product life cycle to select more sustainable products.

Green Commissioning

Building commissioning is a comprehensive verification process to ensure that all components of the building project function
well together as a total system while meeting defined objectives and criteria. The process optimizes the performance of various
building systems and equipment. Green commissioning required for a LEED project emphasizes energy-related building systems
(e.g., the HVAC systems, lighting control, etc.). In fact, commissioning HVAC systems is even more important in green buildings
than in conventional buildings. This is because equipment in green buildings is less likely to be oversized and has a smaller
margin of error. Also, the building envelope is often commissioned since its performance has a direct impact on the performance
of a building’s HVAC system. Testing may be performed to ensure that green materials meet manufacturers’ claims, like no-VOC
adhesives.
LEED requires that for projects less than 50,000 ft2 (4645 m2), the commissioning authority (CxA) can be a qualified person
from the designer or contractor’s team. But for larger projects, the CxA has to be a disinterested employee (e.g., from the owner)
or come from an independent party (e.g., a professional commissioning organization). Ideally, the new building flush-out, if neces-
sary, should be scheduled after the building commissioning. However, if the commissioning has to be conducted after the flush-out,
then the CxA must make sure that no new contaminants would be introduced during the commissioning process. The building
systems frequently undergo commissioning for a LEED project include, but are not limited to:
l HVAC equipment
l HVAC controls
l Lighting controls
l Domestic water heating
l Building envelope
l Green building systems and renewable energy systems
Green commissioning can also benefit non-LEED projects. This is because commissioning of energy-related building systems
could save energy and lower building operating costs for owners. According to Evan Mills, a Staff Scientist at Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory, commissioning the country’s nearly 5 million commercial buildings would produce more energy savings
than what can be generated by all the wind farms, nuclear power plants, fuel efficiency savings from cars, and other alternative
energy programs. However, according to a 2000 survey (PECI, 2000), the penetration of commissioning in the California market
was only 0.03% in existing commercial buildings and 5% for new commercial buildings. The progress has been slow over the years.
There is also an urgent demand for well-trained building commissioning professionals.
Researchers have found that building commissioning is a very cost effective approach to improve building and system function
and address existing problems. Under most circumstances, building commissioning has a very reasonable payback period, that is,
less than 5 years. Many projects can even be paid back within a year (Mills, 2009). The buildings are likely to be more comfortable
and healthier after commissioning.

Conclusions

With more buildings to be constructed in the future to meet the requirements of population growth, the environmental impact of
the construction industry will continue to increase globally. Therefore, it is imperative to minimize the footprint of construction
operations by adopting sustainable construction methods and processes that also fit local conditions. This calls for collaborative
 Sustainable Construction Methods and Processes 329

efforts among government, trade organizations, researchers, practitioners from the construction industry, and other involved enti-
ties. After encountering the early learning curve and upfront investment on new technologies/equipment and employee training, the
contractors can expect most of these methods and processes to be cost-effective as well, so all the changes will be sustainable envi-
ronmentally and economically.

References

Glavinich, T.E., 2008. Contractors guide to green building construction: management, project delivery, documentation, and risk reduction, 1st edn. Wiley, Hoboken, NJ.
McGraw Hill Construction (2010). Green outlook 2011: Green trends driving growth. http://aiacc.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/greenoutlook2011.pdf (accessed on January
3, 2017).
Mills E (2009) Building commissioning: a golden opportunity for reducing energy costs and greenhouse gas emissions. Report prepared for California Energy Commission Public
Interest Energy Research (PIER). http://cx.lbl.gov/documents/2009-assessment/lbnl-cx-cost-benefit.pdf (accessed on January 8, 2017).
Portland Energy Conservation, Inc. (PECI) (2000) Final reportdCalifornia commissioning market characterization study. A report prepared for Pacific Gas and Electric Company,
Portland, Oregon.

Relevant Websites

https://www.astm.orgdAmerican Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).

https://www.bls.gov/green/construction/dU.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
http://www.enr.com/toplistsdEngineering News-Record.
https://www.epa.govdU.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
https://www.nist.gov/services-resources/software/beesdNational Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
http://www.usgbc.orgdU.S. Green Building Council.