DIODE

APPLICATIONS
Once the basic behavior of a device is understood, its function and
response in an infinite variety of configurations can be examined.
The analysis of electronic circuits can follow one of two paths:
using the actual characteristics or applying an approximate model
for the device.
LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the
clockwise direction, which results in
LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS
LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS
The straight line is called a
load line because the
intersection on the vertical
axis is defined by the
applied load R. The
analysis to follow is
therefore called load-line
analysis.
 LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS
 Change the level of R (the load) and the intersection on the vertical axis will
change. The result will be a change in the slope of the load line and a different
point of intersection between the load line and the device characteristics.
 We now have a load line defined by the network and a characteristic curve
defined by the device. The point of intersection between the two is the point of
operation for this circuit.
 By simply drawing a line down to the horizontal axis, we can determine the
diode voltage VDQ, whereas a horizontal line from the point of intersection to the
vertical axis will provide the level of IDQ.
 The point of operation is usually called the quiescent point (abbreviated “ Q
- point”) to reflect its “still, unmoving” qualities as defined by a dc
network.
LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS
 LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

The load line is determined solely by the applied network, whereas the
characteristics are defined by the chosen device.
LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS
LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS

In essence, therefore,
once a dc Q-point has
been determined the
diode can be replaced
by its dc resistance
equivalent.
RESISTANCE LEVELS
DC OR STATIC
RESISTANCE
DC OR STATIC RESISTANCE
DC OR STATIC RESISTANCE
 AC OR DYNAMIC RESISTANCE
• The dc resistance of a diode is independent of the
shape of the characteristic in the region surrounding
the point of interest.
• If a sinusoidal rather than a dc input is applied, the
situation will change completely. The varying input
will move the instantaneous operating point up and
down a region of the characteristics and thus defines a
specific change in current and voltage as shown in
Fig.
• With no applied varying signal, the point of operation
would be the Q -point appearing on Fig. , determined
by the applied dc levels.
• The designation Q-point is derived from the word
quiescent , which means “still or unvarying.”
AC OR DYNAMIC RESISTANCE
AC OR DYNAMIC RESISTANCE
AC OR DYNAMIC RESISTANCE
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
Over one full cycle, defined by the period T of Fig.
2.44 , the average value (the algebraic sum of the
areas above and below the axis) is zero. The circuit of
Fig. 2.44 , called a half-wave rectifier , will generate a
waveform v o that will have an average value of
particular use in the ac-to-dc conversion process.
When employed in the rectification process, a diode
is typically referred to as a rectifier. Its power and
current ratings are typically much higher than those
of diodes employed in other applications, such as
computers and communication systems.
 HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

During the interval t = 0 to T/2 in Fig. 2.44 the polarity of the applied voltage vi is such
as to establish “pressure” in the direction indicated and turn on the diode with the
polarity appearing above the diode. Substituting the short-circuit equivalence for the
ideal diode will result in the equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.45 , where it is fairly obvious
that the output signal is an exact replica of the applied signal. The two terminals
defining the output voltage are connected directly to the applied signal via the short-
circuit equivalence of the diode.
HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

For the period T/2 to T, the polarity of the input vi is as shown in Fig. 2.46 , and the resulting
polarity across the ideal diode produces an “off” state with an open-circuit equivalent. The
result is the absence of a path for charge to flow, and vo = iR = (0)R = 0 V for the period T/2 to
T. The input vi and the output vo are sketched together in Fig. 2.47 for comparison purposes.
The output signal vo now has a net positive area above the axis overa full period and an
average value determined by
HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION

The process of removing one-

half the input signal to
establish a dc level is called
half-wave rectification .
 PIV (PRV)
The peak inverse voltage (PIV) [or PRV (peak reverse
voltage)] rating of the diode is of primary importance
in the design of rectification systems.
It is the voltage rating that must not be exceeded in
the reverse-bias region or the diode will enter the
Zener avalanche region.
The required PIV rating for the half-wave rectifier can
be determined from the reverse-biased diode with
maximum applied voltage. Applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law, it is fairly obvious that the PIV rating of the
diode must equal or exceed the peak value of the
applied voltage. Therefore,
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
The dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a
process called full-wave rectification . The most familiar network for performing
such a function appears in Fig. 2.53 with its four diodes in a bridge
configuration.
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
During the period t = 0 to T/2 the polarity of the input is as shown in Fig. 2.54 . The resulting
polarities across the ideal diodes are also shown in Fig. 2.54 to reveal that D2 and D3 are
conducting, whereas D1 and D4 are in the “off” state.The net result is the configuration of
Fig. 2.55 , with its indicated current and polarity across R . Since the diodes are ideal, the
load voltage is vo = vi, as shown in the same figure.
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
For the negative region of the input the conducting diodes are D1 and D4,
resulting in the configuration of Fig. 2.56 . The important result is that the polarity
across the load resistor R is the same as in Fig. 2.54 , establishing a second positive
pulse, as shown in Fig. 2.56 .
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
Over one full cycle the input and output voltages will appear as
shown in Fig. 2.57 .
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
Since the area above the axis for one full cycle is now
twice that obtained for a half-wave system, the dc level
has also been doubled and

PIV The required PIV of each diode (ideal) can be

determined from Fig. 2.59 obtained at the peak of the
positive region of the input signal. For the indicated loop
the maximum voltage across R is V m and the PIV rating
is defined by
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

Center-Tapped Transformer

A second popular full-wave rectifier

appears in Fig. 2.60 with only two
diodes but requiring a center-tapped
(CT) transformer to establish the
input signal across each section of
the secondary of the transformer.
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
During the positive portion of vi applied to the primary of the transformer, the
network will appear as shown in Fig. 2.61 with a positive pulse across each
section of the secondary coil. D1 assumes the short-circuit equivalent and D2 the
open-circuit equivalent, as determined by the secondary voltages and the
resulting current directions. The output voltage appears as shown in Fig. 2.61.
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
During the negative portion of the input the network appears as shown in Fig.
2.62 , reversing the roles of the diodes but maintaining the same polarity for the
voltage across the load resistor R. The net effect is the same output as that
appearing in Fig. 2.57 with the same dc levels.
 FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION

PIV The network of Fig. 2.63 will help us determine the

net PIV for each diode for this full-wave rectifier.
Inserting the maximum voltage for the secondary
voltage and Vm as established by the adjoining loop
results in
 CLIPPERS
Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion of an input
signal without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.

The half-wave rectifier is an example of the simplest form of diode clipper—

one resistor and a diode. Depending on the orientation of the diode, the
positive or negative region of the applied signal is “clipped” off.

There are two general categories of clippers: series and parallel. The series
configuration is defined as one where the diode is in series with the load,
whereas the parallel variety has the diode in a branch parallel to the load.
 SERIES CLIPPERS
The response of the series configuration of Fig. 2.68a to a variety of
alternating waveforms is provided in Fig. 2.68b . Although first introduced
as a half-wave rectifier (for sinusoidal waveforms), there are no boundaries
on the type of signals that can be applied to a clipper.
 SERIES CLIPPERS
The addition of a dc supply to the
network as shown in Fig. 2.69 can have a
pronounced effect on the analysis of the
series clipper configuration. The
response is not as obvious because the
dc supply can aid or work against the
source voltage, and the dc supply can be
in the leg between the supply and output
or in the branch parallel to the output.
 PARALLEL CLIPPERS
The network of Fig. 2.81 is the simplest of parallel diode configurations with the
output for the same inputs of Fig. 2.68 .
 CLAMPERS
• A clamper is a network
constructed of a diode, a resistor,
and a capacitor that shifts a
waveform to a different dc level
without changing the appearance
of the applied signal.
• Clamping networks have a
capacitor connected directly from
input to output with a resistive
element in parallel with the output
signal. The diode is also in parallel
with the output signal but may or
may not have a series dc supply as
an added element.
 CLAMPERS

The resulting output waveform appears in Fig. 2.92

with the input signal. The output signal is clamped
to 0 V for the interval 0 to T/2 but maintains the
same total swing (2 V) as the input.
NETWORKS WITH A DC SOURCE

The response of any network with both an ac and a

dc source can be found by finding the response to
each source independently and then combining the
results.
NETWORKS WITH AN AC SOURCE
NETWORKS WITH A AC SOURCE
NETWORKS WITH A DC AND AC SOURCE
PROBLEM ON ZENER DIODE
PROBLEM ON ZENER DIODE
VOLTAGE DOUBLER
VOLTAGE DOUBLER