PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Graduate School
First Semester, SY 2021-2022
November 11, 2021
Prepared by: Jemimah Joy G. Zabala

TOPIC #3: PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF EDUCATION

BEHAVIORISM, COGNITIVISM & CONSTRUCTIVISM
LEARNING OUTCOMES

● Define and explain the concepts of Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism as Psychological bases of
Education.
● Understand the importance of these Psychological perspectives as bases of Education.
● Relate and apply the basic principles of Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism in the teaching and
learning process.

TOPIC OUTLINE

A. Behaviorism
a. Understanding Behaviorism
 Key principles and implications of Behaviorism
b. Importance of understanding Behaviorism as a Psychological bases of Education
c. Behavioral Tips and Strategies to Apply in Teaching
d. Criticisms on Behaviorism
B. Cognitivism
a. Understanding Cognitivism
 Key principles and implications of Cognitivism
b. Importance of understanding Cognitivism as a Psychological bases of Education
c. Cognitivist Tips and Strategies to Apply in Teaching
d. Criticisms on Cognitivism
C. Constructivism
a. Understanding Constructivism
 Key principles and implications of Constructivism
b. Importance of understanding Constructivism as a Psychological bases of Education
c. Constructivist Behavioral Tips and Strategies to Apply in Teaching
d. Criticisms on Constructivism

BRIEF INTRODUCTION

The developments in the field of Education have been greatly influenced by Psychology, from then up until these
modern times. As it is recorded in the history of education, Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism are some of the
main branches of Psychology that has had a huge influence in understanding the learning process. Simply put, the theory
of behaviorism is about the study of observable and measurable behavior. Hence, it relies on the prediction of behavior
based on a causal stimulus. It assumes that learning occurs in response to an external stimulus through the means of
conditioning and reinforcement, and believes in the behavior’s learned causes over the biological one. It does not focus
on the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. On the other hand, Cognitivists arose later on and
challenged the theory of Behaviorism. They hold that learning occurs even in the absence of observable behavior, that
humans are capable of mental processes, and that learning can happen even without any emotional factors or without
applying reinforcements. Additionally, Constructivism primarily stemmed from the Cognitive theory and it states that
learners construct knowledge rather than just passively take in information. It holds that learning is a function of how
the individual creates meaning from his or her own experiences, which integrates intellectual and emotional factors.
However, despite of the vast and defined contradictions, Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism has had their own
remarkable contribution in understanding how learning occurs in the context of Education.
Part 1. Behaviorism
Key theorists: Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner

Brief History
It was during the late 19th century that the Behaviorist movement began to rise through the works of Thorndike and
Pavlov. Later on, during the first half of the 20th century, it was popularized by Watson and Skinner. On the early phases
of development, unobservable behaviors are not much considered as scientific, which is why the behaviorists tried to
validate psychology as a science by focusing on the external and scientifically measurable behaviors.

Understanding Behaviorism

Behaviorism or behavioral psychology, is the study of overtly observable and measurable behavior. It’s main focus is
Behavior, which can be defined as any act that is observable. This theory is concerned with the observable stimulus-
response behaviors, as they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner. It strongly relies in the behavior’s
learned causes over the biological one. It does not focus on the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind.

Behaviorism assumes that changes in behavior signify learning. This learning theory suggests that in order to learn, the
learners must be actively engaged and being rewarded immediately to reinforce their activity. Hence, the desired
behavior is advanced by external stimuli, and assumes that all behaviors are learned through the process called
conditioning. Further, it also suggests that as behaviors can be learned, it can also be unlearned or replaced. Therefore,
it is mainly based on the stimuli-response associations, and suggests that given the right stimulus, you will get the right
response.

In education, the system of rewards and punishments has been greatly adopted in the classrooms by rewarding desired
behaviors and punishing inappropriate ones. Reinforcements such as giving rewards will encourage a desirable behavior
while undesirable behavior that goes unrewarded or punished will be extinguished. Rewards and punishments may vary,
but it must be important to the learner in some way. For example, if a teacher wishes to teach the behavior of remaining
seated during the class period, the reward might be being the teacher’s assistant, running an errand, or being allowed to
go to the library to do homework at the end of the class. As with all teaching methods, success depends on each
student’s stimulus and response, and on associations made by each learner.

Reinforcement is one of the important concepts in Behaviorism as it is the process of encouraging or establishing a belief
or pattern of behavior, especially by encouragement or reward. The process of reinforcement is done through the
means of a Reinforcer which is anything that can strengthen the desired response. There are two types of reinforcers:
Positive reinforcer, which can be any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response, and the Negative
reinforcer which can be any stimulus that increases the frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or removed.

On the other hand, Punishment involves presenting a strong stimulus that decreases the frequency of a particular
response. Punishment is effective in quickly eliminating undesirable behaviors. Positive punishment is any stimulus that
is given or added to decrease the undesired behavior while Negative punishment is any stimulus that decreases the
frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or removed.

REINFORCEMENT PUNISHMENT
(Behavior Increases) (Behavior Decreases)
POSITIVE Positive Reinforcement Positive Punishment
(Something is Something is added to increase desired behavior Something is added to decrease undesired behavior
added) Ex: Smile and compliment student on good Ex: Give student detention for failing to follow the class rules
performance
NEGATIVE Negative Reinforcement Negative Punishment
(Something is Something is removed to increase desired behavior Something is removed to decrease undesired behavior
removed) Ex: Give a free homework pass for turning in all Ex: Make student miss their time in recess for not following
assignments the class rules

Further, Reinforcement Schedule also matters. A desired response can be maintained successfully through partial
reinforcement schedules. This includes interval schedules and ratio schedules:

1. Fixed Interval Schedules – reinforcement that takes place after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last
reinforcement. Ex. Reward every 10 minutes
2. Variable Interval Schedules – similar to fixed interval schedules but has a varied amount of time between
reinforcements. Ex. Reward in diff. intervals (first in 10 mins, second in 20 mins.)
3. Fixed Ratio Schedules – fixed number of correct responses must occur before the reinforcement. Ex. Reward given
every after 5 correct responses.
4. Variable Ratio Schedules – the number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement varies. This
schedule ensures lesser chances of prediction about when the reward will be given. Ex. Reward given every after 5
correct responses, then after 10, and so on.

Just as a behavior can be learned, Cognitivists also believed that it can be unlearned through the process of Extinction.
Extinction decreases the probability of a response by contingent withdrawal of a previously reinforced stimulus. For
instance, a student who has developed the habit of making fun of reading aloud make classmates laugh is reinforced
when classmates are laughing. When the teacher tells the students not to laugh, the behavior is later extinguished.

Key Principles and implications of Behaviorism:

 Learning takes place through the teacher taking control over the learning process. Students are passive learners,
who are conditioned/reinforced in order to get the desirable learning outcomes.
 Learning outcomes are measurable/observable.
 Learning requires practice, repetition and reinforcements, as it strengthens the relation between stimulus of the
teachers and the desired response by the learner.
 Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
 Behavior that is positively reinforced is likely to reoccur while negatively reinforced behaviors are less likely to
be repeated.

Importance of Understanding Behaviorism as a Psychological Bases of Education

Understanding Behaviorism is key in understanding how to motivate students effectively. Using behaviorist theory in the
classroom can be beneficial for both students and teachers. Behaviorist learning theory shows its importance in
targeting the desired behavior in students. Students work for things that bring them positive feeling. Further, they
generally avoid behaviors that are unlikable and develop habitual behaviors from those that are repeated often.
However, wrong application of reinforcements does not necessarily encourage desirable behaviors. In the same way,
improper application of punishments does not necessarily result in extinguishing undesirable behavior. Hence,
understanding Behaviorism is key to guide educators in applying reinforcements that are effective in encouraging the
desired behaviors, and punishments that can extinguish undesirable ones, in line with the desired learning outcomes.

Behavioral Tips and Strategies to Apply in Teaching

Behaviorist Tips on Teaching:

 Provide students with opportunity to practice and apply learning.
 Give immediate authentic and relevant feedback.
 Always pair a good performance with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.

Behavioral Learning Strategies & Activities:

 Drills. Providing drills allows students to practice knowledge and skills.
 Question and answer. Teachers can use a question as a stimulus and answer as a response, gradually getting
harder with questions to help students understand a concept.
 Guided practice. Teachers can be directly involved in helping students go through problems to give them the
reinforcement and behavior demonstration you want them to follow.
 Regular review. Reviews are important to behavioral learning theory. Going back over material and giving
positive reinforcement will help students retain information much better.
 Positive reinforcement. Behaviorist classrooms utilize positive reinforcement regularly. This can be in the form
of verbal reinforcement and praise, reward systems, added privileges, and more.
 Feedback is vital to achieve learning, as the teachers stimulates the learner to give the desired response to
measure learning outcomes

Questions:
1. What reinforcements and punishment have you employed to encourage or discourage a certain student
behavior?
2. Studies suggests that intrinsic motivation results in long lasting and fulfilling results. In giving reinforcements to
our students, how can we move from giving external and tangible rewards to intangible ones that boosts
intrinsic motivation?
Supplemental Readings:
Criticisms on Behaviorism  https://www.waterford.org/
education/how-to-motivate-
 Best only for certain learning outcomes, like foreign languages and math. students/
 Not as effective for analytical and comprehensive learning.  https://
 The theory doesn’t encompass enough of human learning and behavior. www.opencolleges.edu.au/
 Learning is more than just actions. informed/features/intrinsic-
motivation/
Part 2. Cognitivism

Understanding Cognitivism

Cognitivism is concerned with what learners know and how they come acquire it. Similar to Behaviorism, changes in
behavior are observed, but as an indication of what is going on in the learners' mind. Cognitivism looks beyond
observable behavior, viewing learning as internal mental processes. This learning theory focuses on how information is
received, organized, stored and retrieved by the mind. It believes that the mind is like an information processer or
computer. In this view, learners are actively involved in the way they process information.

In Cognitivism, the purpose of education is for learners to be able to remember and apply information. Learning is
concerned not so much with what learners do but with what they know and how they come to acquire it. It is not simply
due to external stimuli, it is a result of mental or cognitive processes. The desired outcome of learning is knowledge
through perceiving information, processing, storing and retrieving this information (memory)and applying it (transfer).
For Cognitivists, unlike with the Behaviorists, learners are active participants in the learning process and has their own
ability to guide their own learning by using mental strategies. Further, teachers pay particular attention to how learners
structure, organize, and sequence information to facilitate learning. The learners’ thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values
are also considered to be influential in the learning process The real focus of the cognitive approach is on changing the
learner by encouraging him/her to use appropriate learning strategies.

The following are some of the Cognitive processes that plays a vital role in the teaching and learning process:

 Perception - is a cognitive process that allows people to take in information through their senses (sensation) and
then utilize this information to respond and interact with the world.
 Attention - is a cognitive process that allows people to focus on a specific stimulus in the environment.
 Memory - is an important cognitive process that allows people to encode, store, and retrieve information. It is a
critical component in the learning process and allows people to retain knowledge about the world and their
personal histories.
 Language/Language development - are cognitive processes that involve the ability to understand and express
thoughts through spoken and written words. It allows us to communicate with others.
 Learning - requires cognitive processes involved in taking in new things, synthesizing information, and
integrating it with prior knowledge.

Key Principles and Implications of Cognitivism:

 Learning is a change in symbolic mental constructions (or schema).
 Students are proactive learners and are viewed as information processors.
 Teachers facilitate learning and provide tools that help learner’s brain process information.
 The goal of education is for learners to remember and apply information. Hence, retention and recall is
important to build schema’s in the brain.
 Learning is a process of organizing information into conceptualized models. Thus, instructions should be
organized, sequenced and presented in a manner that is understandable and meaningful to the learner.

Hence, teachers must take note of the following:

1. Understanding that individuals bring various learning experiences to the learning situation which can impact
learning outcomes
2. Determining the most effective manner in which to organize and structure new information to tap the learners’
previously acquired knowledge, abilities, and experiences.
3. Arranging practice with feedback so that the new information is effectively and efficiently assimilated and/or
accommodated within the learner’s cognitive structure

Importance of understanding Cognitivism as a Psychological Bases of Education

The principles of Cognitivism are vital in the organization, categorization, and presentation of learning materials. Hence,
it is very useful in the planning and development of curriculum. This perspective serves as a guide for educators to
understand the mental processes of learners in order to achieve the goal of long-term learning, strong comprehension
and a love for learning. Understanding perception, attention, memory, learning and all the other cognitive processes
plays a vital part in paving the way to an effective teaching and learning process that aims to produce lifetime learners.

Cognitivist Tips and Strategies to Apply in Teaching

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information:

 Rehearsal - This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
  Meaningful Learning - This is making connections between new information and prior knowledge.
 Organization - It is making connections among various pieces of information. Info that is organized efficiently
should be recalled.
 Elaboration - This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one already knows. It is
connecting new info with old to gain meaning.
 Visual Imagery - This means forming a "picture" of the information Generation Things we produce' are easier to
remember than things we 'hear".
 Context - Remembering the situation helps recover information.
 Personalization – it is making the information relevant to the individual.
 Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) - You will remember the beginning and end of a 'list' more readily
 Part Learning - Break up the 'list" or "chunk" information to increase memorization.
 Distributed Practice - Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once (Massed Practice)
 Mnemonic Aids - These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help them retain and retrieve
information more effectively. This includes the loci technique, acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word and
association techniques, among others.

Cognitive Learning Strategies and Activities:

 Memorization Games to strengthen memory

 Journal or Reflection writing to reflect on the lessons
 Allowing students to create their own learning game, which paves a way for students to master the lesson
 Ask students to explain a problem to other students and teach it to them
 Simulation or hands-on problem activity which provides students an opportunity to make mistakes, and then
learn from them. A simulation that shows them where they went wrong can then help them correct.
 Concept mapping or Mind mapping
 Providing handouts or other lecture materials that emphasize the organization of the information being taught

Criticisms on Cognitivism

 Refers only to processes we can’t directly observe.

 Disregards biological and other factors.
 Generally based on controlled experiments which might not be applicable real world.

Questions:
 Through the lens of Cognitivism, which focuses on mental processes instead of behaviors, how will you know
that your students are learning?
 Which cognitive strategy or activity is most applicable in your area of teaching?

Supplementary Reading:
 Four Cognitive Strategies for Student Engagement (wabash.edu)
 Cognitive Learning Strategies | Wentworth (wit.edu)
 https://www.open.edu/openlearncreate/mod/page/view.php?id=147079#:~:text=Cognitivism%20is%20a
%20learning%20theory,and%20retrieved%20by%20the%20mind.&text=Therefore%2C%20cognitivism%20looks
%20beyond%20observable,the%20way%20they%20process%20information.
 https://lidtfoundations.pressbooks.com/chapter/behaviorism-cognitivism-constructivism/
Part 3. Constructivism

Understanding Constructivism

Constructivism is the theory which states that learners actively construct or make their own knowledge rather than just
passively take-in information. As people experience the world and reflect upon those experiences, they build their own
representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas). Basically, learners use
their previous knowledge as a foundation and build on it with new things that they learn. Hence, everyone's individual
experiences make their learning unique to them.

Related to this are the processes of assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation refers to the process of taking new
information and fitting it into an existing schema. Accommodation refers to using newly acquired information to revise
and redevelop an existing schema. For example, if I believe that friends are always nice, and meet a new person who is
always nice to me I may call this person a friend, assimilating them into my schema. However, I meet a different person
who sometimes pushes me to try harder and is not always nice. I may decide to change my schema to accommodate this
person by deciding a friend doesn’t always need to be nice if they have my best interests in mind. Further, this may
make me reconsider whether the first person still fits into my friend schema.

Types of constructivism:
1. Cognitive constructivism – is mainly rooted from the work of Jean Piaget and his research on cognitive development
in children. This focuses on the idea that learning should be related to the learner’s stage of cognitive development.
These methods work to help students in learning new information by connecting it to things they already know, and
allows them to make alterations in their existing knowledge to accommodate new information. Cognitive
constructivism comes
2. Social constructivism – came from the works of Lev Vygotsky, and is closely connected to cognitive constructivism
with the added element of societal and peer influence. This area focuses on the collaborative nature of learning.
Knowledge develops from how people interact with each other, their culture, and society at large. Students rely on
others to help create their building blocks, and learning from others helps them construct their own knowledge and
reality.
3. Radical constructivism - developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld, this theory is very different from cognitive and social
constructivism. It emphasizes the subjectivity of the individual. The overall idea is that knowledge is invented, not
discovered. Any kind of knowledge is constructed rather than perceived through senses. The things we bring to the
table are only interpretations of knowledge. The learning experience is up to the individual building knowledge and
their subjective interpretation of this experience. The individual constructs knowledge, understanding and links this
with their own experiences and ideas

A traditional approach to teaching focuses on delivering information to students, meanwhile constructivism argues that
information cannot be directly imparted. Only an experience can facilitate students to construct their own knowledge,
hence the goal of teaching is to design these experiences. The role of a teacher is to bring learners to construct their
own knowledge such that they have a well-organized set of concepts. Acquiring skills on how to facilitate concept
formation and development are vital. The following are important factors to take note:

 Learners come to the classroom with prior understandings and experiences. Hence, teachers must address and
build upon this prior knowledge to promote learning.
 Teachers must think about what a child already knows, so that new knowledge can be related to existing
schemata (assimilated or accommodated).
 Teachers must look for misconceptions in the learners’ existing knowledge and provide learning activities that
enable the learners to understand the limitations of their current conceptions.
 Teachers must prepare learning tasks in which the learners can actively participate as learners’ own discovery as
a crucial element in learning.

As such, in constructivist classrooms, the teacher has a role to create a collaborative environment where students are
actively involved in their own learning. Teachers act as facilitators of learning than actual instructors. Teachers work to
understand the previous conceptions and understanding of students, then work to incorporate knowledge within those
areas. Teachers will also need to adjust their teaching to match the learner’s level of understanding. Student questions
and interests are the main focus of teacher and they build on what students already know. They focus on interactive
learning and are student-centered. Constructivist classrooms involve small group works, collaborative and interactive
activities. Further, the table below shows a comparison of the traditional and constructivist classroom:

Traditional Classroom Constructivist Classroom

Curriculum begins with the parts of the whole. Curriculum emphasizes big concepts, beginning with the whole and
Emphasizes basic skills. expanding to include the parts.
Strict adherence to fixed curriculum is highly valued. Pursuit of student questions and interests is valued.
 Materials are primarily textbooks and workbooks. Materials include primary sources of material and manipulative materials.
Learning is based on repetition. Learning is interactive, building on what the student already knows.
Teachers disseminate information to students. Teachers have a dialogue with students, helping students construct their
Students are recipients of knowledge. own knowledge.
Teacher's role is directive, rooted in authority. Teacher's role is interactive, rooted in negotiation.
Assessment is through testing and correct answers. Assessment includes student works, observations and points of view, as
well as tests. Process is as important as product.
Knowledge is seen as inert/inactive. Knowledge is seen as dynamic, ever changing with our experiences.
Students work primarily alone. Students work primarily in groups.

Key Principles and Implications of Constructivism:

 Knowledge is constructed. Knowledge is built upon other knowledge. Students take pieces and put them
together in their own unique way. The student’s previous knowledge, experiences, beliefs, and insights are all
important foundations for their continued learning.
 Learning is an active process. Learning involves sensory input to construct meaning. The learner needs to do
something (engage in discussions, reading, activities, etc.) in order to learn, it’s not a passive activity. Learners
need to engage in the world so they are actively involved in their own learning and development.
 Learning is a social activity. Learning is directly associated to our connection with other people. Our teachers,
our family, or peers, and our acquaintances impact our learning. Educators are more likely to be successful as
they understand that social interaction is key to learning and they use conversation, interaction, and group
applications to help students retain their knowledge.
 Learning is contextual. Students don’t learn isolated facts and theories separate from the rest of our lives. The
things we learn and the points we tend to remember are connected to the things going on around us.
 Knowledge is personal. Constructivism is based on one’s own experiences and beliefs. Each person will have
their own prior knowledge and experiences to bring to the table.
 Learning exists in the mind. Physical actions and experiences are necessary but aren’t enough for learning.
Engaging the mind is key to successful learning. Mental experiences are needed for retaining knowledge.
 New learning depends on current understanding. Background information is very important. It is through the
present views or scheme that the learner has that new information will be interpreted.
 Meaningful learning occurs within authentic learning tasks. An authentic task is one that involves a learning
activity that involves constructing knowledge and understanding that is similar to the knowledge and
understanding needed when applied in the real world. Ex. a writing activity where 6 year olds prepare a checklist
of things they need to do in school is a more an authentic activity than for them to be working only on tracing
worksheets with dotted lines.

Importance of understanding Cognitivism as a Psychological Bases of Education

Constructivism is crucial to understand as an educator because it influences the way students learn. Teachers and
instructors that understand the constructivist learning theory understand that their students bring their own unique
experiences to the classroom every day. Their background and previous knowledge impacts how they are able to learn.
By truly understanding Constructivist learning theory, educators are able to use techniques to help their students
understand their previous knowledge and relate it to the new ones effectively.

Constructivist Tips and Strategies to Apply in Teaching

Constructivist Tips on Teaching:

 Provide opportunities for experimentation and quality interaction.

 Have lots of hands-on activities.
 Relate your topic to real life situations.
 Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.
 Ask learners to think of their own example of the concept

Constructivist Classroom Activities:

 Reciprocal teaching/learning - allow a group of 2 or more students work together and teach one another.
 Inquiry-based learning – allow students to create their own questions and seek to solve them through research
and observations. After featuring the arguments for their response, they make connections between their prior
knowledge and the information discovered through their research. Students conclude by identifying possible
gaps and developing further questions for the next project.
 Problem-based learning - similar to inquiry-based learning, but focuses on problems in the real world. Students
work in groups to research possible solutions and gain valuable skills by working together. Seeking evidence,
 making connections, and drawing conclusions as a team help students develop communication and collaborative
skills while solving real-world issues.
 Cooperative learning – have students work together in small groups to maximize their own and each other's
learning. Cooperative learning differs from typical group work in that it requires interdependence among group
members to solve a problem or complete an assignment. There is no division of tasks in cooperative learning;
instead, group members rely on the knowledge of others to further their own understanding.

Criticisms on Constructivism

The biggest criticism of constructivist learning is its lack of structure. Some students need highly structured and
organized learning environments to thrive, and constructivist learning focuses on a more laid-back method to help
students engage in their own learning. Grading is often removed from constructivist classrooms and places more value
on student progress, which can lead to students falling behind and not meeting standardized grading requirements, as
without standardized grading teachers may not know which students are struggling.

Questions:
 How do you relate and apply Constructivism in you respective areas of teaching?


Brief Summary of Presentation

To wrap it up, the discussed topics are some of the different Psychological Theories that have strongly influenced the
field of Education. Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism are all different perspectives. There is no one theory to
rule them all, but all of them played a huge part and had remarkable contributions in the Learning and Teaching process
which we can use and apply in facilitating the learning of our students.

Guide Questions to be answered by the members of the class orally.

 Which do you think has been the most influential to the field of Education? Behaviorism, Cognitivism or
Constructivism? Why?
References

Books
● Lucas, Ma Rita et.al. (2014) Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process. 4 th Edition. Lorimar Publishing
Inc.
● Feist, J. et.al. (2008) Theories of Personality. 7th Edition. McGraw-Hill.

Websites with titles of topics

● Itoo, T.H. 2018, November 22. Psychological Bases of Education. Kashmir Images.
https://thekashmirimages.com/2018/11/22/psychological-bases-of-education/
● Staff Writers. 2021, June 28. Introduction to Educational Psychology. Psychology.Org.
https://www.psychology.org/resources/educational-psychology-theories/
● Gallardo, R.L. 2014, November 1. Psychological Foundations of Education. Slideshare.
https://www.slideshare.net/rhamylle13/psychological-foundations-of-education-complete
● https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ivan-Pavlov
● 2020, August 21. Behaviorism. OpenLearn Create. OLCreate: General Teaching Methods: Behaviourism
(open.edu)
● 2020, May 27. What is Constructivism. Western Governor’sUniversity. What Is Constructivism? (wgu.edu)

Supplementary Reading Materials

o https://lidtfoundations.pressbooks.com/chapter/behaviorism-cognitivism-constructivism/
o https://classroom.synonym.com/difference-between-cognitive-constructivist-theories-11400433.html
o https://www.firefighternation.com/firerescue/learning-theories-behaviorism-cognitivism-and-
constructivism/#gref
o https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviorism.html