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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Additional Maths CIE 

Quadratic Functions

CONTENTS
Solving Quadratics by Factorising
Quadratic Formula
Completing the Square
Quadratic Equation Methods
Discriminants
Quadratic Graphs
Quadratic Inequalities

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Solving Quadratics by Factorising YOUR NOTES


Solving Quadratics by Factorising
How do I solve a quadratic equation using factorisation?
Rearrange it into the form ax2 + bx + c = 0
zero must be on one side
it is easier to use the side where a is positive
Factorise the quadratic and solve each bracket equal to zero
If (x + 4)(x - 1) = 0, then either x + 4 = 0 or x - 1 = 0
Because if A × B = 0, then either A = 0 or B = 0
To solve (x − 3) (x + 7) = 0
…solve “first bracket = 0”:
x–3=0
add 3 to both sides: x = 3
…and solve “second bracket = 0”
x+7=0
subtract 7 from both sides: x = -7
The two solutions are x = 3 or x = -7
The solutions have the opposite signs to the numbers in the brackets
To solve (2x − 3) (3x + 5) = 0
…solve “first bracket = 0”
2x – 3 = 0
add 3 to both sides: 2x = 3
3
divide both sides by 2: x =
2
…solve “second bracket = 0”
3x + 5 = 0
subtract 5 from both sides: 3x = -5
5
divide both sides by 3: x = −
3
3 5
The two solutions are x = or x = −
2 3
To solve x (x − 4) = 0
it may help to think of x as (x – 0) or (x)
…solve “first bracket = 0”
(x) = 0, so x = 0
…solve “second bracket = 0”
x–4=0
add 4 to both sides: x = 4
The two solutions are x = 0 or x = 4
It is a common mistake to divide both sides by x at the beginning - you will lose a
solution (the x = 0 solution)

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Where permitted, and if you calculator has a quadratic solving feature, you can

use it to check your final solutions!
Such calculators also help you to factorise (if you're struggling with that
step)
2 1
e.g. A calculator gives solutions to 6x 2 + x − 2 = 0 as x = − and x =
3 2
"Reverse" the method above to factorise!
6x 2 + x − 2 = (3x + 2) (2x − 1)
Warning: a calculator (correctly) gives solutions to 12x2 + 2x – 4 = 0 as x =
2 1
− and x =
3 2
But 12x2 + 2x – 4 ≠ (3x + 2) (2x − 1) as these brackets expand to 6x2 +
... not 12x2 + ...
Multiply by 2 to correct this
12x2 + 2x – 4 = 2(3x + 2) (2x − 1)

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

(a)
Solve (x − 2) (x + 5) = 0

Set the first bracket equal to zero

x–2=0
Add 2 to both sides
x=2
Set the second bracket equal to zero
x+5 =0
Subtract 5 from both sides
x = -5
Write both solutions together using “or”
x = 2 or x = -5

(b)
Solve (8x + 7) (2x − 3) = 0

Set the first bracket equal to zero

8x + 7 = 0
Subtract 7 from both sides
8x = -7
Divide both sides by 8
7
x=− 8

Set the second bracket equal to zero

2x - 3 = 0
Add 3 to both sides
2x = 3
Divide both sides by 2

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x= 2
3 YOUR NOTES


Write both solutions together using “or”

7 3
x = − 8 or x = 2
(c)
Solve x (5x − 1) = 0

Do not divide both sides by x (this will lose a solution at the end)
Set the first “bracket” equal to zero
(x) = 0
Solve this equation to find x
x=0
Set the second bracket equal to zero
5x - 1 = 0
Add 1 to both sides
5x = 1
Divide both sides by 5
1
x=
5
Write both solutions together using “or”
1
x = 0 or x = 5

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Quadratic Formula YOUR NOTES


Quadratic Formula
How do I use the quadratic formula to solve a quadratic
equation?
A quadratic equation has the form:
ax2 + bx + c = 0 (as long as a ≠ 0)
you need "= 0" on one side
The quadratic formula is a formula that gives both solutions:
−b ± b 2 − 4 ac
x=
2a
Read off the values of a, b and c from the equation
Substitute these into the formula
write this line of working in the exam
Put brackets around any negative numbers being substituted in
To solve 2x 2 − 5x + 2 = 0 using the quadratic formula:
a = 2, b = -5 and c = 2
− (−5) ± (−5) 2 − 4 × 2 × 2
x=
2×2
Carefully simplify by doing the calculation in parts
5± 25 − 16 5 ± 9
x= =
4 4
Separate the + and - to get the two answers
5+3 8
x= = =2
4 4
5−3 2 1
x= = =
4 4 2
On the non-calculator paper, answers may be required in exact form
On the calculator paper, you might have to round your answers
Give your answers in exact form before rounding in case you round incorrectly

 Exam Tip
On the calculator paper you will be able to check your solutions using the
quadratic equation solver feature if your calculator has one
Always look for how the question wants you to leave your final answers
for example, correct to 2 decimal places

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Use the quadratic formula, without a calculator, to find the exact solutions of the
equation 12x 2 − 17x + 6 = 0 .
Write down the values of a, b and c

a = 12, b = − 17, c = 6

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
Substitute these values into the quadratic formula, x =
2a
Put brackets around any negative numbers

− (−17) ± (−17) 2 − 4 × 12 × 6
x=
2 × 12

Simplify

17 ± 289 − 288
x=
24
17 ± 1
=
24
Work out the + and - parts separately to get the two solutions
17 + 1 18
x= =
24 24
17 − 1 16
x= =
24 24

3 2
x= , x=
4 3

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Completing the Square YOUR NOTES


Completing the Square
What is completing the square?
Completing the square is another way of writing a quadratic function
It means rewriting y = ax 2 + bx + c in the form y = a (x + p ) 2 + q
The key point is that x now only occurs once in the equation
It can be used to solve quadratic equations, sketch their graphs and to find the coordinates
of the turning point

How do I complete the square?

The method used will depend on the value of the coefficient of the x 2 term in y = ax 2 + bx + c
When a = 1
p is half of b
q is c − p 2

When a ≠ 1
First take a factor of a out of the x 2 and x terms
Then continue as above

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YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
Sometimes a question will explicitly use the phrase complete the square
Sometimes a question will use the form a (x + p ) 2 + q without using the phrase
completing the square

 Worked Example
Write 3x 2 − 12x + k in the form a (x + p ) 2 + k + q , where a, p and q are constants
to be found, and k is an unknown constant.
The form required is 'completing the square' (do not be put off by the k , it is just a
constant!).
STEP 1 - Take a factor of 3 out of the x 2 and x terms - leaving k avoids awkward
fractions.
3x 2 − 12x + k = 3(x 2 − 4x ) + k
4
STEPS 2 and 3 - Complete the square on the (x 2 − 4x ) part only. "p = − = − 2"
2
and "q = 0 − (−2) 2 = 4 ".
3 ⎡⎢⎣ (x − 2) 2 − 4 ⎤⎥⎦ + k
STEP 4 - Expand and simplify.
3(x − 2) 2 − 12 + k
3 ( x − 2) 2 + k − 12
i.e. a = 3, p = − 2, q = − 12

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Solving by Completing the Square YOUR NOTES

How do I solve a quadratic equation by completing the square? 
To solve x2 + bx + c = 0
replace the first two terms, x2 + bx, with (x + p)2 - p2 where p is half of b
this is called completing the square
x2 + bx + c = 0 becomes
(x + p)2 - p2 + c = 0 where p is half of b
rearrange this equation to make x the subject (using ±√)
For example, solve x2 + 10x + 9 = 0 by completing the square
x2 + 10x becomes (x + 5)2 - 52
so x2 + 10x + 9 = 0 becomes (x + 5)2 - 52 + 9 = 0
make x the subject (using ±√)
(x + 5)2 - 25 + 9 = 0
(x + 5)2 = 16
x + 5 = ±√16
x = ±4 - 5
x = -1 or x = -9
If the equation is ax2 + bx + c = 0 with a number in front of x2, then divide both sides by a first,
before completing the square

 Exam Tip
When making x the subject to find the solutions at the end, don't expand the
squared brackets back out again!
Remember to use ±√ to get two solutions

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Solve 2x 2 − 8x − 24 = 0 by completing the square.
Divide both sides by 2 to make the quadratic start with x2

x 2 − 4x − 12 = 0

Halve the middle number, -4, to get -2

Replace the first two terms, x2 - 4x, with (x - 2)2 - (-2)2

(x − 2) 2 − (−2) 2 − 12 = 0

Simplify the numbers

(x − 2) 2 − 4 − 12 = 0
(x − 2) 2 − 16 = 0

Add 16 to both sides

(x − 2) 2 = 16

Square root both sides

Include the ± sign to get two solutions

x − 2 = ± 16 = ± 4

Add 2 to both sides

x = ±4 +2

Work out each solution separately

x = 6 or x = -2

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Quadratic Equation Methods YOUR NOTES


Quadratic Equation Methods
If you have to solve a quadratic equation but are not told which method to use, here is a guide as
to what to do

When should I solve by factorisation?

When the question asks to solve by factorisation
For example, part (a) Factorise 6x2 + 7x – 3, part (b) Solve 6x2 + 7x – 3 = 0
When solving two-term quadratic equations
For example, solve x2 – 4x = 0
…by taking out a common factor of x to get x(x – 4) = 0
...giving x = 0 and x = 4
For example, solve x2 – 9 = 0
…using the difference of two squares to factorise it as (x + 3)(x – 3) = 0
...giving x = -3 and x = 3
(Or by rearranging to x2 = 9 and using ±√ to get x = = ±3)
When possible, factorising is usually the easiest way to solve a quadratic equation
Even on the calculator paper, if you can spot a factorisation quickly, use this approach

When should I use the quadratic formula?

If the coefficients (a, b and c) are large, factorising and completing the square can be
difficult or slow
The quadratic formula lends itself to using a calculator
Some modern calculators will solve quadratic equations directly, with no need to use
the formula
Typically the quadratic formula would be used when rounding is involved
For example, if a question says to leave solutions correct to 2 decimal places or 3
significant figures
However, the quadratic formula is also useful when answers need to be exact
The formula lends itself to surd form after simplifying some of the values within it
−4 ± 42 − 4 × 2 × (−2) −4 ± 32 −4 ± 4 2
e.g. x = = = = −1 ± 2
2×2 4 4
If in doubt, use the quadratic formula - it always works

When should I solve by completing the square?

A question may direct you to solve by completing the square
e.g. Part (a) says to complete the square and part (b) says 'hence' or 'use part (a)' to
solve ...
Completing the square may have already happened for other reasons
e.g. Completing the square allows the coordinates of the turning point on a quadratic
graph to be found easily
If this has been done in an earlier part of a question, use it to solve the quadratic
equation

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Calculators can solve quadratic equations

Double check you've entered the equation correctly, in the correct format
Use this feature to check your answers where possible
If the solutions on your calculator are whole numbers or fractions (with no
square roots), this means the quadratic equation does factorise

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

a)
Solve x 2 − 7x + 2 = 0 , giving your answers correct to 2 decimal places

“Correct to 2 decimal places” suggests using the quadratic formula and/or a

calculator
For accuracy, it is a good idea to use both - use the formula and calculator as
normal first
Then use the quadratic solver feature to check your solutions
Substitute a = 1, b = -7 and c = 2 into the formula, putting brackets around any
negative numbers

− (−7) ± (−7) 2 − 4 × 1 × 2
x=
2×1
Use a calculator to find each solution

x = 6.70156… or 0.2984...

Round your final answers to 2 decimal places

x = 6.70 or x = 0.30
If your calculator has a quadratic equation solver, use it to check your answers
(b)
Solve 16x 2 − 82x + 45 = 0

Method 1
The coefficients are large and so the factorisation, even if possible, is hard to spot
Therefore, one method to use is the quadratic formula - it always works!
The solution below is the manual way to use a calculator, but as above, if your
calculator has a quadratic solver feature, you may use that
Substitute a = 16, b = -82 and c = 45 into the formula, putting brackets around any
negative numbers

− (−82) ± (−82) 2 − 4 × 16 × 45
x=
2 × 16
Use a calculator to find each solution
9 5
x = 2 or x = 8

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Method 2 YOUR NOTES

If you do persevere with the factorisation then use that method instead 

16x 2 − 82x + 45 = (2x − 9) (8x − 5) = 0

Set the first bracket equal to zero

2x − 9 = 0

Add 9 to both sides then divide by 2

2x = 9
9
x=
2
Set the second bracket equal to zero

8x − 5 = 0

Add 5 to both sides then divide by 8

8x = 5
5
x=
8
9 5
x = 2 or x = 8

(c)
By writing x 2 + 6x + 5 in the form (x + p ) 2 + q , solve x 2 + 6x + 5 = 0

Notice this question does not use the phrase 'completing the square' but shows
the form of it instead
Find p (by halving the middle number)

6
p= =3
2

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Write x2 + 6x as (x + p)2 - p2 YOUR NOTES


x 2 + 6x = (x + 3) 2 − 32
= (x + 3) 2 − 9

Replace x2 + 6x with (x + 3)2 – 9 in the equation

(x + 3) 2 − 9 + 5 = 0
(x + 3) 2 − 4 = 0
Make x the subject of the equation (start by adding 4 to both sides)

(x + 3) 2 = 4

Take square roots of both sides (include a ± sign to get both solutions)

x +3 = ± 4 = ±2

Subtract 3 from both sides

x = ±2 −3

Find each solution separately using + first, then - second

x = - 5, x = - 1
Even though the quadratic factorises to (x + 5)(x + 1), this is not the method asked
for in the question

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Hidden Quadratic Equations YOUR NOTES

How do I spot a hidden quadratic equation? 
Hidden quadratics have the same structure as quadratic equations
a(something)2 + b(something) + c = 0
Here are some hidden quadratics based on x2 - 3x - 4 = 0:
x 4 − 3x 2 − 4 = 0 (a quadratic in x2)
x16 − 3x 8 − 4 = 0 (a quadratic in x8)
x − 3 x − 4 = 0 (a quadratic in x because ( x ) 2 is x )
2 1 1 ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟2 2
x − 3x − 4 = 0 (a quadratic in x because ⎝x ⎠ = x 3 )
3 3 3 3

Sometimes, a change of base helps to spot a hidden quadratic

e.g. the first term in 4x − 3 × 2x − 4 = 0 can be written 4x = (22) x = 22x = (2x ) 2
(2x ) 2 − 3 × 2x − 4 = 0 is a quadratic in 2x
Trigonometric equations can also be in the form of a quadratic
e.g. 3tan2 3x + 4tan 3x − 6 = 0 is a quadratic in tan 3x

How do I solve a hidden quadratic equation?

You can solve a(...)2 + b(...) + c = 0 with a substitution
Substitute "u = ..." and rewrite the equation in terms of u only
au2 + bu + c = 0
Solve this easier quadratic equation in u to get u = p and u = q
Replace the u's with their substitution to get two equations
"... = p" and "... = q"
Solve these two separate equations to find all the solutions
These equations might have multiple solutions or none at all!
e.g. to solve x4 - 3x2 - 4 = 0
Substitute u = x2 to get u2 - 3u - 4 = 0
The solutions are u = 4 or u = -1,
Rewrite in terms of x:
x2 = 4 or x2 = -1,
Solve to give x = -2 or x = 2 (no solutions from x2 = -1 as you can't square-root a
negative)

 Exam Tip
While the substitution method is not compulsory, beware of skipping steps
e.g. it is incorrect to "jump" from the solutions of x2 -3x - 4 = 0 to the
solutions of (x + 5)2 - 3(x + 5) - 4 = 0 by "adding 5 to them"
the substitution method shows you end up subtracting 5

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

(a)
Solve x 8 − 17x 4 + 16 = 0
This is a quadratic in x4 so let u = x4
u 2 − 17u + 16 = 0
Solve this simpler quadratic equation, for example by factorisation
(u − 16) (u − 1) = 0
Write out the u solutions
u = 16 or u = 1
Replace u with x4
x 4 = 16 or x 4 = 1
Solve these separate equations (remember an even power gives two solutions)
x = ± 2 or x = ± 1
Write your solutions out (it's good practice to write them in numerical order)
x = − 2 , − 1 , 1 or 2
(b)

Solve x − x − 6 = 0
This is a quadratic in √x so let u = √x
u2 − u − 6 = 0
Solve this simpler quadratic equation, for example by factorisation
(u − 3) (u + 2) = 0
u = 3 or u = − 2
Replace u with √x and solve

x =3 ⇒x =9
x = − 2 has no solutions as x ≥0
You can check your solutions by substituting them back into the equation
If you put x = 4 as a solution by mistake then substituting will spot this error

9− 9 −6=0
4− 4 −6= −4≠0

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x =9 YOUR NOTES


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Discriminants YOUR NOTES


Discriminants
What is a discriminant?
The discriminant is the part of the quadratic formula that is under the square root sign
It is b 2 − 4ac
The quadratic formula, in full, is

−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x=
2a
where the quadratic equation is written in the form
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
It is sometimes denoted by the Greek letter Δ (capital delta)

 Worked Example
Find, in terms of the constant k , the discriminant of the quadratic equation
3x 2 + 2kx − k = kx 2 − 4kx + 2 .
First write the quadratic equation in the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0 .
3x 2 − kx 2 + 2kx + 4kx − k − 2 = 0
(3 − k ) x 2 + 6kx − (k + 2) = 0
It can be easier/clearer to pick out a, b and c first, before finding the discriminant.
a =3−k
b = 6k
c = − (k + 2)
The discriminant is b 2 − 4ac .
∆ = (6k ) 2 − 4 × (3 − k ) × − (k + 2)
∆ = 36k 2 + 4(6 + k − k 2 )

∆ = 32 k 2 + 4 k + 24

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Applications of Discriminant YOUR NOTES

How does the value of the discriminant affect roots? 
There are three options for the outcome of the discriminant:
If b 2 − 4ac > 0 the square root part of the quadratic formula can be calculated leading
to two solutions (values of x )
i.e. two different real roots
If b − 4ac = 0 the square root part of the quadratic formula will be zero leading to one
2

solution
i.e. one repeated root or two equal roots
If b 2 − 4ac < 0 the square root part of the quadratic formula cannot be calculated
leading to no solutions
i.e. no (real) roots

How do I sketch quadratic graphs using the discriminant?

If b 2 − 4ac > 0 the quadratic equation has two different real roots
The graph of the quadratic will intersect the x -axis twice (at the roots)
If b − 4ac = 0 the quadratic equation has two equal roots (one root)
2

The graph of the quadratic will intersect (touch) the x -axis once (at the root)
If b 2 − 4ac < 0 the quadratic equation has no (real) roots
The graph of the quadratic will not intercept the x -axis

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How do I use the discriminant to find the number of YOUR NOTES

intersections between a line and a curve? 
For the graphs of two functions, y = f (x ) and y = g(x ) where
f (x ) is quadratic
g(x ) is linear
the number of intersections between the graphs can be found using the discriminant.
STEP 1
Set f (x ) = g(x )
STEP 2
Rearrange into the form h(x ) = 0 such that h(x ) is in the quadratic form
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
STEP 3
Find the discriminant and thus determine the number of intersections between the
graphs of y = f (x ) and y = g(x )
if b 2 − 4ac > 0 (two real roots) the graphs intersect twice
if b 2 − 4ac = 0 (equal roots) the graphs intersect once
this means the line (g(x ) ) is a tangent to the curve ( f (x ) )
if b 2 − 4ac < 0 (no real roots) the graphs do not intersect

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Show that the line with equation y = 3x − 7 is tangent to the curve with equation
y = (x + 3) (x − 2) .
STEP 1 - set the equations of the line and curve equal to each other.
3x − 7 = (x + 3) (x − 2)

STEP 2 - rearrange to quadratic form.

3x − 7 = x 2 + x − 6
x 2 − 2x + 1 = 0
STEP 3 - find the discriminant and interpret its value.
∆ = (−2) 2 − 4(1) (1) = 0

Since the discriminant is zero, the line and the curve intersect at one point only.
Therefore the line is a tangent to the curve.

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Quadratic Graphs YOUR NOTES


Quadratic Graphs
A quadratic is a function of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c where a is not zero
They are a very common type of function in mathematics, so it is important to know their key
features

What does a quadratic graph look like?

The shape made by a quadratic graph is known as a parabola
The parabola shape of a quadratic graph can either look like a “∪-shape” or a “∩-shape”
A quadratic with a positive coefficient of x 2 will be a ∪-shape
A quadratic with a negative coefficient of x 2 will be a ∩-shape
A quadratic will always cross the y -axis
A quadratic may cross the x -axis twice, once, or not at all
The points where the graph crosses the x -axis are called the roots
If the quadratic is a ∪-shape, it has a minimum point (the bottom of the ∪)
If the quadratic is a ∩-shape, it has a maximum point (the top of the ∩)
Minimum and maximum points are both examples of turning points

How do I sketch a quadratic graph?

We could create a table of values for the function and then plot it accurately
However we often only require a sketch to be drawn, showing just the key features
The key features needed to be able to sketch a quadratic graph are
the overall shape
∪-shape graphs occur when a > 0 (positive quadratic)
∩-shape graphs occur when a < 0 (negative quadratic)
the x -intercept(s), these are also known as the roots (there may be none!)
roots are found by setting the quadratic function (or y ) equal to zero

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i.e. solve ax 2 + bx + c = 0 YOUR NOTES

if there are no (real) solutions (i.e. no roots), the graph does not intersect the x - 
axis
the discriminant can be used to determine whether a quadratic function has
0, 1 or 2 roots
the y -intercept
this is found by setting x = 0 in the quadratic function
so for ax 2 + bx + c the coordinates of the y -intercept will be (0, c)
the minimum or maximum point (turning point)
sometimes a rough idea of where this should lie is enough
sometimes the specific coordinates of the turning point will be needed
when required the coordinates of the turning point can be found by either
completing the square or differentiation
in cases where the quadratic has just one root, the graph will touch (rather
than cross) the x -axis and so this will be the turning point

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

a)
Sketch the graph of y = x 2 − 5x + 6 , labelling any intercepts with the coordinate
axes.
It is a positive quadratic, so will be a ∪ -shape
The '+c ' at the end is the y -intercept ( y = c when x = 0 ), so the graph crosses the y
-axis at (0,6)
Factorise
y = (x − 2) (x − 3)
Solve y = 0
(x − 2) (x − 3) = 0
x = 2 or x = 3
So the roots of the graph are
(2,0) and (3,0)

b)
Sketch the graph of y = x 2 − 6x + 13, labelling any intercepts with the coordinate
axes.
It is a positive quadratic, so will be a ∪ -shape
The '+c ' at the end is the y -intercept, so this graph crosses the y-axis at
(0,13)
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The discriminant of the quadratic is 'b 2 − 4ac ' YOUR NOTES

(−6) 2 − 4(1) ( 13) = 36 − 52 = − 16 

As the discriminant is negative, there are no (real) roots and the graph does not
intersect the x -axis
(Note we have included the coordinates of the turning point, (3, 4) to help you
visualise the graph, but there was no requirement from the question to do this - on a
sketch like this, the turning point should be in the correct quadrant)

c)
Sketch the graph of y = − x 2 − 4x − 4 , labelling any intercepts with the coordinate
axes and the turning point.
It is a negative quadratic, so will be an ∩ -shape
The '+c ' at the end is the y -intercept, so this graph crosses the y -axis at (0, -4)
Factorising
−x 2 − 4x − 4 = − (x 2 + 4x + 4) = − (x + 2) 2

This shows that there is only one root and the graph will touch the x -axis at the
point (-2, 0)
This point will also be the turning point - and as this is a negative quadratic - will be a
maximum point

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YOUR NOTES


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Sketching Graphs by Completing the Square YOUR NOTES

How does completing the square help me sketch graphs? 
Completing the square can quickly tell us the coordinates of the turning point on a
quadratic graph
This is based on the fact that a squared term (e.g. (x + 1) 2 ) cannot be negative
STEP 1
Complete the square - rewrite ax 2 + bx + c = 0 in the form a (x + p ) 2 + q
STEP 2
Deduce the x -coordinate of the turning point
(x + p ) 2 ≥ 0 for all values of x
Therefore it's minimum value is 0, and this occurs when x = − p
The x -coordinate is −p
STEP 3
Deduce the y -coordinate of the turning point
a (x + p ) 2 = 0
Therefore y = q
The y -coordinate is q
STEP 4
The turning point has coordinates (−p , q )
This can be considered when sketching the graph of the quadratic function
Note that the turning point could be a maximum or minimum point - this will depend on the
value of a
a is the coefficient of the x 2 term
If a is positive, the graph is ∪ - shaped and will have a minimum point
If a is negative, the graph is ∩ - shaped and will have a maximum point

How do I use the graph of a quadratic function to find its

range?
The range of a quadratic function will be shown on its graph by the values y takes
i.e. the turning point from a quadratic graph will determine its range
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For the quadratic function f (x ) whose graph has a minimum point (x min , y min ) YOUR NOTES
the range of the f (x ) will be f ≥ y min 
For the quadratic function f (x ) whose graph has a maximum point (x max , y max )
the range of f (x ) will be f ≤ y max
If there any restrictions on the domain of f (x ) then they could affect the range of f (x )

 Worked Example
Sketch the graph of y = f (x ) where f (x ) = 2x 2 − 4x − 6 , giving the coordinates of
the turning point, and any points where the graph intercepts the coordinate axes.
Use your graph to write down the range of f (x ) .
STEP 1 - Complete the square.
f (x ) = 2(x 2 − 2x ) − 6
= 2 ⎡⎢⎣ (x − 1) 2 − 1 ⎤⎥⎦ − 6
= 2(x − 1) 2 − 8

STEP 2 - Deduce the x -coordinate.

x = − (−1) = 1
STEP 3 - Deduce the y -coordinate.
y = −8
STEP 4 - Label the turning point when sketching the graph of the quadratic
function.

The graph has a minimum point so the range will be greater than or equal to the y -
coordinate of this point.
The range of f ( x ) is f > − 8

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Quadratic Inequalities YOUR NOTES



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Quadratic Inequalities YOUR NOTES

What are quadratic inequalities? 
They are similar to quadratic equations with the "=" replaced by one of <, >, ≤ or ≥
Just like equations such inequalities should be in a form such that 0 is on one side of
the inequality
e.g. ax 2 + bx + c ≤ 0
Sketching a quadratic graph is essential to finding the correct solution(s)
Some modern calculators may be able to solve quadratic inequalities directly
You could use this to check your answer

How do I solve quadratic inequalities?

STEP 1
Rearrange the inequality into quadratic form with a positive squared term
ax2 + bx + c > 0 (>, <, ≤ or ≥)
STEP 2
Find the roots of the quadratic equation
Solve ax2 + bx + c = 0 to get x1 and x2 where x1 ≤ x2
STEP 3
Sketch the graph of the quadratic and label the roots
As Step 1 makes the x -squared term positive it will be ∪ -shaped
STEP 4
Identify the region that satisfies the inequality
For ax2 + bx + c > 0 you want the region above the x-axis - the solution will be x < x1 or x > x2
For ax2 + bx + c < 0 you want the region below the x-axis - the solution will be x1 < x < x2

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Be careful: YOUR NOTES

avoid multiplying or dividing by a negative number 
if unavoidable, “flip” the inequality sign so < → >, ≥ → ≤, etc
do rearrange to make the x2 term positive

Quadratic inequalities and the discriminant

The discriminant of the quadratic function ax 2 + bx + c is b 2 − 4ac
It's value indicates the number of (real) roots the quadratic function has
if b 2 − 4ac > 0 there are two roots
if b 2 − 4ac = 0 there is one root (repeated)
if b 2 − 4ac < 0 there are no roots
The firsts and last of these are quadratic inequalities
Some questions will require you to use the discriminant to set up and solve a quadratic
inequality
For example: Find the values of k such that the equation (k + 1) x 2 − 7x + (k − 2) = 0
has no real roots
Using the discriminant, and for no real roots, (−4) 2 − 4(k + 1) (k − 2) < 0
Using the approach above, this leads to the quadratic inequality in k ,
k2 − k − 6 > 0
And using the method above, including sketching a graph, leads to the solutions
k < − 2 and k > 3

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Some calculators will solve quadratic inequalities directly and just give you the

answer
Beware!
make sure you have typed the inequality in correctly
the calculator may not display the answer in a conventional way
e.g x 1 < x < x 2 may be shown as x 2 > x > x 1
Both are mathematically correct but the first way is how it would
normally be written
these questions could crop up on the non-calculator exam paper

 Worked Example

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Inequalities on Graphs YOUR NOTES

What are inequalities on graphs? 
Inequalities can be represented on graphs by shaded regions and dotted or solid lines
These inequalities have two variables, x and y
Several inequalities are used at once
The solution is an area on a graph (often called a region and labelled R)
The inequalities can be linear or quadratic

How do I draw inequalities on a graph?

Sketch each line or curve
If the inequality is strict (< or >) then use a dotted line
If the inequality is weak (≤ or ≥) then use a solid line
Decide which side of the line satisfies the inequality
If unsure, choose a coordinate on one side and test it in the inequality
The origin is an easy point to use
If it satisfies the inequality then that whole side of the line satisfies the inequality
For example: (0,0) satisfies the inequality y < x2 + 1 so you want the side of the
curve that contains the origin

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YOUR NOTES


 Exam Tip
Recognise this type of inequality by the use of two variables
You may have to deduce the inequalities from a given graph
Pay careful attention to which region you are asked to shade
Sometimes the exam could ask you to shade the region that satisfies the
inequalities this means you should shade the region that is wanted.

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example


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YOUR NOTES


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