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YOUR NOTES
IGCSE Additional Maths CIE 

Equations, Inequalities & Graphs

CONTENTS
Modulus Functions
Graphs of Cubic Polynomials

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Modulus Functions YOUR NOTES


Sketching Modulus Graphs
What is a modulus function?
The modulus function makes any ‘input’ positive
This is sometimes called the absolute value (of the input)
The modulus function is indicated by a pair of vertical lines being written around the
input
Similar to how brackets are used
e.g. |7 | = 7, | − 7 | = 7

What types of modulus graphs will I need to sketch?

Modulus graphs required will be of linear, or quadratic form
Linear form will be | ax + b |
Quadratic form will be | ax 2 + bx + c|
Often, there will be two graphs to sketch as this helps with solving equations involving
modulus functions
In linear form, equations could be of the form | ax + b | = | cx + d |
One side of the equation may not involve the modulus
One side may have a constant term only (i.e. b = 0 and/or d = 0
In quadratic form, equations could be of the form | ax 2 + bx + c | = d
In both cases, graphs of the left hand side and right hand side drawn on the same diagram
will reveal the number of intersections of the graphs (and so the number of solutions to the
equation)

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YOUR NOTES


How do I sketch the graph of the modulus of a function: y =

|f(x)|?
STEP 1
Pencil in the graph of y = f(x)

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STEP 2 YOUR NOTES

Reflect anything below the x-axis, in the x-axis, to get y = |f(x)| 

Note in particular that the y -axis intercept, if negative on the graph of y = f (x ) will be
positive on the graph of y = | f (x ) |
At the x -axis intercepts, the graph will have a sharp ∨ -shape
this is not a smooth curve like with a turning point
if the graph is of the form y = − | f (x ) | then the graph would be wholly negative and
the x -axis intercepts would have a sharp ∧ -shape

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example


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Solving Modulus Equations YOUR NOTES

Why are graphs needed to solve modulus equations? 
Sketching the graphs of two modulus function(s) on the same diagram quickly reveals
the number of solutions there are to the equation
which parts of the graph (equation) - either the 'normal' part or the 'reflected' part - will
be needed to solve equations
For example, two non-parallel linear graphs would intersect
the solution to the linear functions being equal to each other would have one solution
if a modulus is involved there could be more than one intersection/solution

How do I solve modulus equations?

STEP 1
Sketch the graphs including any modulus (reflected) parts
STEP 2
Locate the graph intersections
STEP 3
Determine which part of each graph ('normal' or 'reflected' part) is needed to solve the
equation
Solve the appropriate equation(s)

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YOUR NOTES


How do I solve modulus inequalities?

The process is very similar to that as solving equations - with the graph sketching being
essential
STEP 1
Sketch the graph(s) including any modulus (reflected) parts
STEP 2
Locate the graph intersections (or x -axis intercepts if zero on one side)

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STEP 3 YOUR NOTES

Determine which part(s) of the graph(s) satisfy the inequality (highlight any on the graph) 
Find the intersections (by solving equation(s))
STEP 4
Write the final answer(s) down, being careful with the use of <, >, ≤ and/or ≥

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 Sketching the graphs is important as solving algebraically can lead to invalid

solutions
For example, x = 1 is a solution to x − 4 = 2x − 5
but x = 1 is not a solution to |x − 4 | = 2x − 5
(substitute x = 1 into both sides and see why it does not work)

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example


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YOUR NOTES


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Graphs of Cubic Polynomials YOUR NOTES


Graphs of Cubic Polynomials
What is a cubic polynomial?
A cubic polynomial is a function of the form ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
a, b , c and d are constants
it is a polynomial of degree 3
so b , c and/or d could be zero
To sketch the graph of a cubic polynomial it will need to be in factorised form
e.g. (2x − 1) (x + 2) (x − 3) is the factorised form of 2x 3 − 3x 2 − 11x + 6

What does the graph of a cubic polynomial look like?

In general the graph of a cubic polynomial will take one of the four forms
All are smooth curves that take some practice to sketch!

The exact form a particular cubic polynomial will depend on

The number (and value) of roots (x -axis intercepts) of the cubic polynomial
The y -axis intercept
The sign of the coefficient of the x 3 term ( a )

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If a > 0 the graph is a positive cubic ('starts' in the third quadrant, 'ends' in the YOUR NOTES
first) 
If a < 0 the graph is a negative cubic ('starts' in the second quadrant, 'ends' in the
fourth)
Turning points

How do I sketch the graph of a cubic polynomial?

STEP 1
Find the y -axis intercept by setting x = 0
STEP 2
Find the x -axis intercepts (roots) by setting y = 0
(Any repeated roots will mean the graph touches - rather than crosses - the x -axis)
STEP 3
Consider the shape of the graph - is it a positive cubic or a negative cubic?
Where does the graph 'start' and 'end'?
STEP 4
Consider where any turning points should go
STEP 5
Sketch the graph with a smooth curve, labelling points where the graph intercepts the x
and y axes

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Exam Tip YOUR NOTES

 In the exam, a cubic polynomial that requires sketching will be given in

factorised form
i.e. as the product of three linear factors
a factor could be repeated
Build your sketch up as you work through each step to gradually build a mental
picture of it
If you need to redraw the graph for your final answer, that's fine!

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

Sketch the graph of y = (2x − 1) (x − 3) 2 .
STEP 1 - y -axis intercept
y = (−1) (−3) 2 = − 9
STEP 2 - x -axis intercepts
1
2x − 1 = 0, x =
2
x − 3 = 0, x = 3 (repeated)
STEP 3 - shape, 'start'/'end'
a > 0 ( a = 2) so it is a positive cubic
x = 3 is a repeated root so the graph will touch the x -axis at this point
STEP 4 - turning points
One turning point (minimum) will need to be where the curve touches the x -axis
1
The other (maximum) will need to be betweenx = and x = 3
2
STEP 5 - smooth curve with labelled intercepts

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Modulus Cubic Graphs YOUR NOTES

What is a modulus cubic graph? 
A (factorised) cubic polynomial is of the from f (x ) = a (x − b ) (x − c) (x − d )
The graph of y = f (x ) must cross the x -axis at least once
therefore y must take both positive and negative values
The modulus cubic graph, y = | f (x ) | will mean all values of y are positive
Any negative values become their positive equivalents
e.g. If f (x ) = x 3 then f (−1) = (−1) 3 = − 1 , but | f (−1) | = | (−1) 3 | = | − 1 | = 1
A modulus cubic graph will not have any negative values
the graph will not cross the x -axis
the graph will touch the x -axis (at least once)

How do I sketch a modulus cubic graph?

Sketch the graph of the (original) cubic polynomial, y = f (x )
Any parts of this graph that are below the x -axis should be reflected in the x -axis to
sketch the graph of y = | f (x ) |

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YOUR NOTES


The points at which a modulus graph touches the x -axis are the same as the points at
which the original graph intercepts the x -axis (i.e. the roots of f (x ) )
Label these points, and the y -axis intercept, on a sketch
Notice that the points at which a modulus graph touches the x -axis are not smooth
they are 'pointy' (V-shaped)
turning points are smooth (U-shaped)

How do I find a cubic function from its modulus graph?

To deduce a cubic expression from its modulus graph consider
whether the (original) expression could be a positive or negative cubic
a positive cubic 'starts' in the third quadrant and 'ends' in the first
a negative cubic 'starts' in the second quadrant and 'ends' in the fourth
a negative cubic can have a "-" at the start of its expression
the x -axis intercepts - the roots

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for the roots b , c and d , write the factors (x − b ) (x − c) (x − d ) YOUR NOTES

the y -axis intercept - to deduce the expression in the form a (x − b ) (x − c) (x − d ) 
lots of cubic functions have the same roots but have different coefficients
the y -axis intercept should be the product a × − b × − c × − d = − abcd
a may often, but not always, be 1

 Exam Tip
Sketching the (original) graph of y = f (x ) first is often helpful rather than trying
to sketch the modulus graph from scratch
If asked to find a cubic function from a given graph
there may be more than one possibility
consider which parts of the graph may have been reflected in the x -
axis
could it be either a positive or negative cubic polynomial?
the factorised form is usually sufficient (unless a question says otherwise)

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

The diagram below shows the graph of y = | f (x ) | where f (x ) is a positive cubic
polynomial.

Deduce an expression for f (x ) leaving your answer in factorised form, with each
factor having integer coefficients.
f (x ) is a positive cubic polynomial so the graph should 'start' in the third quadrant
and 'end' in the first.
A quick sketch (without labels) can help.

The x -axis intercepts indicate the roots.

⎛ 1⎞
(x + 4) ⎜⎜x + ⎟⎟ (x − 3)
⎝ 2⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
The expression for f (x ) is of the form a (x + 4) ⎜⎜x + ⎟ (x − 3) .
⎝ 2 ⎠
Use the y -axis intercept to deduce the value of a .
From the sketch of y = f (x ) the y -axis intercept is -12 (not 12).

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a ×4×
1
× − 3 = − 12
YOUR NOTES
2 
− 6 a = − 12
a =2
The final answer requires each factor to have integer coefficients so multiply 2 into
⎛⎜ 1⎞
⎜x + ⎟⎟ and write down f (x ) .
⎝ 2⎠

f ( x ) = ( x + 4) (2 x + 1) ( x − 3)

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Solving Cubic Inequalities Graphically YOUR NOTES

What is a cubic inequality? 
A cubic function is of the form f (x ) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d where a, b , c and d are constants
A cubic inequality can be any of the following
f (x ) > 0
f (x ) ≥ 0
f (x ) < 0
f (x ) ≤ 0
An inequality may need rearranging into one of these forms first before solving
Furthermore, solving cubic equations graphically is easiest when the expression has
been factorised
e.g. for a cubic with three (real) roots this would be (x − p ) (x − q ) (x − r) where
p , q and r are the roots

How do I solve a cubic inequality graphically?

STEP 1
If need be, rearrange the inequality so that one side of the inequality is zero
This should leave a cubic polynomial on the other side
Factorise the cubic polynomial if required
e.g. (2x − 3) (x − 4) (x + 1) ≤ 0
STEP 2
Sketch the graph of the cubic polynomial
The x -axis intercepts (roots) are crucial to finding the solution but the y -axis intercept is
not needed
e.g.

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STEP 3 YOUR NOTES

Identify the part(s) of the graph that satisfy the inequality 
Highlighting this on the sketch will help
Consider whether you need to include (≤, ≥) or exclude (<, >) the roots
e.g.

STEP 4
Write down the solutions to the inequality
3
e.g. x ≤ − 1, ≤x ≤4
2

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YOUR NOTES
 Worked Example

a)
Sketch the graph of y = f (x ) where f (x ) = (3x − 1) (x − 3) 2 .
1
This is a positive cubic polynomial with roots x = and x = 3
3

x = 3 is a repeated root so the graph will touch the x -axis at this point

a)
Hence solve the inequality f (x ) > 0 .
STEP 1 - the cubic polynomial is already in factorised form
STEP 2 - the graph has been sketched in part (a)
STEP 3 - Highlight the graph to show the parts of the graph which lie above zero

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YOUR NOTES


STEP 4 - Write the solution mathematically. Remember that in this case it is a

1
strict inequality, so it cannot be equal to 3 or
3
1
x> , x ≠3
3

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