Bessel function

Bessel functions, first defined by the mathematician Daniel Bernoulli and then generalized by
Friedrich Bessel, are canonical solutions y(x) of Bessel's differential equation

for an arbitrary complex number , which represents the order of the Bessel function. Although and
produce the same differential equation, it is conventional to define different Bessel functions for
these two values in such a way that the Bessel functions are mostly smooth functions of .

The most important cases are when is an integer or half-integer. Bessel functions for integer are Bessel functions describe the radial
also known as cylinder functions or the cylindrical harmonics because they appear in the solution to part of vibrations of a circular
Laplace's equation in cylindrical coordinates. Spherical Bessel functions with half-integer are membrane.
obtained when solving the Helmholtz equation in spherical coordinates.

Applications of Bessel functions

Bessel's equation arises when finding separable solutions to Laplace's equation and the Helmholtz equation in cylindrical or spherical
coordinates. Bessel functions are therefore especially important for many problems of wave propagation and static potentials. In solving
problems in cylindrical coordinate systems, one obtains Bessel functions of integer order (α = n); in spherical problems, one obtains half-
1
integer orders (α = n + ⁠ ⁠). For example:
2

Electromagnetic waves in a cylindrical waveguide

Pressure amplitudes of inviscid rotational flows
Heat conduction in a cylindrical object
Modes of vibration of a thin circular or annular acoustic membrane (such as a drumhead or other membranophone) or thicker
plates such as sheet metal (see Kirchhoff–Love plate theory, Mindlin–Reissner plate theory)
Diffusion problems on a lattice
Solutions to the radial Schrödinger equation (in spherical and cylindrical coordinates) for a free particle
Position space representation of the Feynman propagator in quantum field theory
Solving for patterns of acoustical radiation
Frequency-dependent friction in circular pipelines
Dynamics of floating bodies
Angular resolution
Diffraction from helical objects, including DNA
Probability density function of product of two normally distributed random variables[1]
Analyzing of the surface waves generated by microtremors, in geophysics and seismology.
Bessel functions also appear in other problems, such as signal processing (e.g., see FM audio synthesis, Kaiser window, or Bessel filter).

Definitions
Because this is a linear differential equation, solutions can be scaled to any amplitude. The amplitudes chosen for the functions originate from
the early work in which the functions appeared as solutions to definite integrals rather than solutions to differential equations. Because the
differential equation is second-order, there must be two linearly independent solutions. Depending upon the circumstances, however, various
formulations of these solutions are convenient. Different variations are summarized in the table below and described in the following sections.
 Type First kind Second kind

Bessel functions Jα Yα

Modified Bessel functions Iα Kα

(1) (2)
Hankel functions Hα = Jα + iYα Hα = Jα − iYα

Spherical Bessel functions jn yn

Modified spherical Bessel functions in kn

(1) (2)
Spherical Hankel functions hn = jn + iyn hn = jn − iyn

Bessel functions of the second kind and the spherical Bessel functions of the second kind are sometimes denoted by Nn and nn, respectively,
rather than Yn and yn.[2][3]

Bessel functions of the first kind: Jα

Bessel functions of the first kind, denoted as Jα(x), are solutions of Bessel's
differential equation. For integer or positive α, Bessel functions of the first kind
are finite at the origin (x = 0); while for negative non-integer α, Bessel functions
of the first kind diverge as x approaches zero. It is possible to define the function
by times a Maclaurin series (note that α need not be an integer, and non-integer
powers are not permitted in a Taylor series), which can be found by applying the
Frobenius method to Bessel's equation:[4]

where Γ(z) is the gamma function, a shifted generalization of the factorial Plot of Bessel function of the first kind, , for integer
function to non-integer values. Some earlier authors define the Bessel function of orders .
the first kind differently, essentially without the division by in ;[5] this
definition is not used in this article. The Bessel function of the first kind is an
entire function if α is an integer, otherwise it is a multivalued function with
singularity at zero. The graphs of Bessel functions look roughly like oscillating
sine or cosine functions that decay proportionally to (see also their
asymptotic forms below), although their roots are not generally periodic, except
asymptotically for large x. (The series indicates that −J1(x) is the derivative of
J0(x), much like −sin x is the derivative of cos x; more generally, the derivative
of Jn(x) can be expressed in terms of Jn ± 1(x) by the identities below.)

For non-integer α, the functions Jα(x) and J−α(x) are linearly independent, and
are therefore the two solutions of the differential equation. On the other hand, for
integer order n, the following relationship is valid (the gamma function has simple
poles at each of the non-positive integers):[6]

This means that the two solutions are no longer linearly independent. In this case, Plot of Bessel function of the first kind with
in the plane from to .
the second linearly independent solution is then found to be the Bessel function of
the second kind, as discussed below.

Bessel's integrals
Another definition of the Bessel function, for integer values of n, is possible using an integral representation:[7]

which is also called Hansen-Bessel formula.[8]

This was the approach that Bessel used,[9] and from this definition he derived several properties of the function. The definition may be
extended to non-integer orders by one of Schläfli's integrals, for Re(x) > 0:[7][10][11][12][13]

Relation to hypergeometric series

The Bessel functions can be expressed in terms of the generalized hypergeometric series as[14]

This expression is related to the development of Bessel functions in terms of the Bessel–Clifford function.

Relation to Laguerre polynomials

In terms of the Laguerre polynomials Lk and arbitrarily chosen parameter t, the Bessel function can be expressed as[15]

Bessel functions of the second kind: Yα

The Bessel functions of the second kind, denoted by Yα(x), occasionally denoted
instead by Nα(x), are solutions of the Bessel differential equation that have a
singularity at the origin (x = 0) and are multivalued. These are sometimes called
Weber functions, as they were introduced by H. M. Weber (1873), and also
Neumann functions after Carl Neumann.[16]

For non-integer α, Yα(x) is related to Jα(x) by

In the case of integer order n, the function is defined by taking the limit as a non- Plot of Bessel function of the second kind, , for
integer α tends to n: integer orders

If n is a nonnegative integer, we have the series[17]

where is the digamma function, the logarithmic derivative of the gamma function.[3]

There is also a corresponding integral formula (for Re(x) > 0):[18]

In the case where n = 0: (with being Euler's constant)

Yα(x) is necessary as the second linearly independent solution of the Bessel's equation when α is an integer. But Yα(x) has more meaning
than that. It can be considered as a "natural" partner of Jα(x). See also the subsection on Hankel functions below.

When α is an integer, moreover, as was similarly the case for the functions of the first kind, the following relationship is valid:

Both Jα(x) and Yα(x) are holomorphic functions of x on the complex plane cut along the negative real axis. When α is an integer, the Bessel
functions J are entire functions of x. If x is held fixed at a non-zero value, then the Bessel functions are entire functions of α.
The Bessel functions of the second kind when α is an integer is an example of the second
kind of solution in Fuchs's theorem.

(1) (2)
Hankel functions: Hα , Hα
Another important formulation of the two linearly independent solutions to Bessel's
(1) (2)
equation are the Hankel functions of the first and second kind, Hα (x) and Hα (x),
defined as[19]

Plot of the Bessel function of the second kind

with in the complex plane from
to .
where i is the imaginary unit. These linear combinations are also known as Bessel
functions of the third kind; they are two linearly independent solutions of Bessel's
differential equation. They are named after Hermann Hankel.

These forms of linear combination satisfy numerous simple-looking properties, like asymptotic
formulae or integral representations. Here, "simple" means an appearance of a factor of the form
ei f(x). For real where , are real-valued, the Bessel functions of the first and
second kind are the real and imaginary parts, respectively, of the first Hankel function and the real and
negative imaginary parts of the second Hankel function. Thus, the above formulae are analogs of
(1) (2)
Euler's formula, substituting Hα (x), Hα (x) for and , for , , as
explicitly shown in the asymptotic expansion.
Plot of the Hankel function of the
The Hankel functions are used to express outward- and inward-propagating cylindrical-wave solutions
(1)
of the cylindrical wave equation, respectively (or vice versa, depending on the sign convention for the first kind Hn (x) with n = −0.5 in
frequency). the complex plane from −2 − 2i to
2 + 2i
Using the previous relationships, they can be expressed as

If α is an integer, the limit has to be calculated. The following relationships are valid, whether α is an
integer or not:[20]

Plot of the Hankel function of the

(2)
1 second kind Hn (x) with n = −0.5
In particular, if α = m + ⁠2 ⁠with m a nonnegative integer, the above relations imply directly that
in the complex plane from −2 − 2i
to 2 + 2i

These are useful in developing the spherical Bessel functions (see below).

The Hankel functions admit the following integral representations for Re(x) > 0:[21]

where the integration limits indicate integration along a contour that can be chosen as follows: from −∞ to 0 along the negative real axis,
from 0 to ±πi along the imaginary axis, and from ±πi to +∞ ± πi along a contour parallel to the real axis.[18]

Modified Bessel functions: Iα, Kα

The Bessel functions are valid even for complex arguments x, and an important special case is that of a purely imaginary argument. In this
case, the solutions to the Bessel equation are called the modified Bessel functions (or occasionally the hyperbolic Bessel functions) of the
first and second kind and are defined as[22]

when α is not an integer; when α is an integer, then the limit is used. These are chosen to be real-valued for real and positive arguments x. The
series expansion for Iα(x) is thus similar to that for Jα(x), but without the alternating (−1)m factor.

can be expressed in terms of Hankel functions:

Using these two formulae the result to + , commonly known as Nicholson's integral or Nicholson's formula, can be obtained to
give the following

given that the condition Re(x) > 0 is met. It can also be shown that

1
only when |Re(α)| < ⁠ ⁠and Re(x) ≥ 0 but not when x = 0.[23]
2

π
We can express the first and second Bessel functions in terms of the modified Bessel functions (these are valid if −π < arg z ≤ ⁠2 ⁠):[24]

Iα(x) and Kα(x) are the two linearly independent solutions to the modified Bessel's equation:[25]

Unlike the ordinary Bessel functions, which are oscillating as functions of a real argument, Iα and Kα are exponentially growing and decaying
functions respectively. Like the ordinary Bessel function Jα, the function Iα goes to zero at x = 0 for α > 0 and is finite at x = 0 for α = 0.
1
Analogously, Kα diverges at x = 0 with the singularity being of logarithmic type for K0, and ⁠2 ⁠Γ(|α|)(2/x)|α | otherwise.[26]

Modified Bessel functions of the first kind, , for Modified Bessel functions of the second kind, , for
. .
Two integral formulas for the modified Bessel functions are (for Re(x) > 0):[27]

Bessel functions can be described as Fourier transforms of powers of quadratic functions. For example (for Re(ω) > 0):

It can be proven by showing equality to the above integral definition for K0. This is done by integrating a closed curve in the first quadrant of
the complex plane.

Modified Bessel functions of the second kind may be represented with Bassett's integral [28]

Modified Bessel functions K1/3 and K2/3 can be represented in terms of rapidly convergent integrals[29]

The modified Bessel function is useful to represent the Laplace distribution as an Exponential-scale mixture
of normal distributions.

The modified Bessel function of the second kind has also been called by the following names (now rare):

Basset function after Alfred Barnard Basset

Modified Bessel function of the third kind
Modified Hankel function[30]
Macdonald function after Hector Munro Macdonald

Spherical Bessel functions: jn, yn

When solving the Helmholtz equation in spherical coordinates by separation of variables, the radial
equation has the form

The two linearly independent solutions to this equation are called the spherical Bessel functions jn
and yn, and are related to the ordinary Bessel functions Jn and Yn by[31]

Plot of the spherical Bessel function

of the first kind jn(z) with n = 0.5 in
the complex plane from −2 − 2i to
yn is also denoted nn or ηn; some authors call these functions the spherical Neumann functions. 2 + 2i with colors created with
Mathematica 13.1 function
ComplexPlot3D
From the relations to the ordinary Bessel functions it is directly seen that:
The spherical Bessel functions can also be written as (Rayleigh's formulas)[32]

The zeroth spherical Bessel function j0(x) is also known as the (unnormalized) sinc function. The first
few spherical Bessel functions are:[33]

Plot of the spherical Bessel function

of the second kind yn(z) with
n = 0.5 in the complex plane from
−2 − 2i to 2 + 2i with colors created
with Mathematica 13.1 function
ComplexPlot3D

and[34]

The first few non-zero roots of the first few spherical Bessel functions are: Spherical Bessel functions of the first kind , for
.
Non-zero Roots of the Spherical Bessel Function (first kind)
Order Root 1 Root 2 Root 3 Root 4 Root 5

3.141593 6.283185 9.424778 12.566371 15.707963

4.493409 7.725252 10.904122 14.066194 17.220755

5.763459 9.095011 12.322941 15.514603 18.689036

6.987932 10.417119 13.698023 16.923621 20.121806

8.182561 11.704907 15.039665 18.301256 21.525418

Non-zero Roots of the Spherical Bessel Function (second kind)

Order Root 1 Root 2 Root 3 Root 4 Root 5

1.570796 4.712389 7.853982 10.995574 14.137167 Spherical Bessel functions of the second kind , for
2.798386 6.121250 9.317866 12.486454 15.644128 .

3.959528 7.451610 10.715647 13.921686 17.103359

5.088498 8.733710 12.067544 15.315390 18.525210

6.197831 9.982466 13.385287 16.676625 19.916796

Generating function
The spherical Bessel functions have the generating functions[35]

Finite series expansions

In contrast to the whole integer Bessel functions Jn(x), Yn(x), the spherical Bessel functions jn(x), yn(x) have a finite series expression:[36]

Differential relations
(1) (2)
In the following, fn is any of jn, yn, hn , hn for n = 0, ±1, ±2, ...[37]

(1) (2)
Spherical Hankel functions: hn , hn
There are also spherical analogues of the Hankel functions:

In fact, there are simple closed-form expressions for the Bessel functions of half-integer order in terms
of the standard trigonometric functions, and therefore for the spherical Bessel functions. In particular,
for non-negative integers n:

Plot of the spherical Hankel function

(2) (1)
sin x of the first kind hn (x) with n = -0.5
and hn is the complex-conjugate of this (for real x). It follows, for example, that j0(x) = ⁠ x ⁠and
in the complex plane from −2 − 2i
cos x to 2 + 2i
y0(x) = −⁠ x ⁠, and so on.

The spherical Hankel functions appear in problems involving spherical wave propagation, for example
in the multipole expansion of the electromagnetic field.

Riccati–Bessel functions: Sn, Cn, ξn, ζn

Riccati–Bessel functions only slightly differ from spherical Bessel functions:

Plot of the spherical Hankel function

(2)
of the second kind hn (x) with
n = −0.5 in the complex plane from
−2 − 2i to 2 + 2i
They satisfy the differential equation

For example, this kind of differential equation appears in quantum mechanics while solving the radial
component of the Schrödinger's equation with hypothetical cylindrical infinite potential barrier.[38]
This differential equation, and the Riccati–Bessel solutions, also arises in the problem of scattering of
electromagnetic waves by a sphere, known as Mie scattering after the first published solution by Mie
(1908). See e.g., Du (2004)[39] for recent developments and references.
Riccati–Bessel functions Sn
Following Debye (1909), the notation ψn, χn is sometimes used instead of Sn, Cn. complex plot from −2 − 2i to 2 + 2i

Asymptotic forms
The Bessel functions have the following asymptotic forms. For small arguments , one obtains, when is not a negative
integer:[4]

When α is a negative integer, we have

For the Bessel function of the second kind we have three cases:

where γ is the Euler–Mascheroni constant (0.5772...).

1
For large real arguments z ≫ |α2 − ⁠ ⁠|, one cannot write a true asymptotic form for Bessel functions of the first and second kind (unless α is
4
half-integer) because they have zeros all the way out to infinity, which would have to be matched exactly by any asymptotic expansion.
However, for a given value of arg z one can write an equation containing a term of order |z|−1:[40]

1
(For α = ⁠2 ⁠the last terms in these formulas drop out completely; see the spherical Bessel functions above.)

The asymptotic forms for the Hankel functions are:

(1) (2) (1) (2)

These can be extended to other values of arg z using equations relating Hα (zeimπ) and Hα (zeimπ) to Hα (z) and Hα (z).[41]

It is interesting that although the Bessel function of the first kind is the average of the two Hankel functions, Jα(z) is not asymptotic to the
average of these two asymptotic forms when z is negative (because one or the other will not be correct there, depending on the arg z used).
But the asymptotic forms for the Hankel functions permit us to write asymptotic forms for the Bessel functions of first and second kinds for
complex (non-real) z so long as |z| goes to infinity at a constant phase angle arg z (using the square root having positive real part):

For the modified Bessel functions, Hankel developed asymptotic expansions as well:[42][43]

There is also the asymptotic form (for large real )[44]

1
When α = ⁠ ⁠, all the terms except the first vanish, and we have
2

For small arguments , we have

Properties
For integer order α = n, Jn is often defined via a Laurent series for a generating function:

an approach used by P. A. Hansen in 1843. (This can be generalized to non-integer order by contour integration or other methods.)

Infinite series of Bessel functions in the form where arise in many physical systems and are defined
in closed form by the Sung series.[45] For example, when N = 3: . More generally,
the Sung series and the alternating Sung series are written as:

A series expansion using Bessel functions (Kapteyn series) is

Another important relation for integer orders is the Jacobi–Anger expansion:

and

which is used to expand a plane wave as a sum of cylindrical waves, or to find the Fourier series of a tone-modulated FM signal.

More generally, a series

is called Neumann expansion of f. The coefficients for ν = 0 have the explicit form

where Ok is Neumann's polynomial.[46]

Selected functions admit the special representation

with

due to the orthogonality relation

More generally, if f has a branch-point near the origin of such a nature that

then

or

where is the Laplace transform of f.[47]

Another way to define the Bessel functions is the Poisson representation formula and the Mehler-Sonine formula:

1
where ν > −⁠ ⁠and z ∈ C.[48] This formula is useful especially when working with Fourier transforms.
2
Because Bessel's equation becomes Hermitian (self-adjoint) if it is divided by x, the solutions must satisfy an orthogonality relationship for
appropriate boundary conditions. In particular, it follows that:

where α > −1, δm,n is the Kronecker delta, and uα,m is the mth zero of Jα(x). This orthogonality relation can then be used to extract the
coefficients in the Fourier–Bessel series, where a function is expanded in the basis of the functions Jα(x uα,m) for fixed α and varying m.

An analogous relationship for the spherical Bessel functions follows immediately:

If one defines a boxcar function of x that depends on a small parameter ε as:

1
(where rect is the rectangle function) then the Hankel transform of it (of any given order α > −⁠ ⁠), gε(k), approaches Jα(k) as ε approaches
2
zero, for any given k. Conversely, the Hankel transform (of the same order) of gε(k) is fε(x):

which is zero everywhere except near 1. As ε approaches zero, the right-hand side approaches δ(x − 1), where δ is the Dirac delta function.
This admits the limit (in the distributional sense):

A change of variables then yields the closure equation:[49]

1
for α > −⁠ ⁠. The Hankel transform can express a fairly arbitrary function as an integral of Bessel functions of different scales. For the
2
spherical Bessel functions the orthogonality relation is:

for α > −1.

Another important property of Bessel's equations, which follows from Abel's identity, involves the Wronskian of the solutions:

where Aα and Bα are any two solutions of Bessel's equation, and Cα is a constant independent of x (which depends on α and on the particular
Bessel functions considered). In particular,

and

for α > −1.

For α > −1, the even entire function of genus 1, x−αJα(x), has only real zeros. Let

be all its positive zeros, then

(There are a large number of other known integrals and identities that are not reproduced here, but which can be found in the references.)

Recurrence relations
(1) (2)
The functions Jα, Yα, Hα , and Hα all satisfy the recurrence relations[50]

and

where Z denotes J, Y, H(1), or H(2). These two identities are often combined, e.g. added or subtracted, to yield various other relations. In this
way, for example, one can compute Bessel functions of higher orders (or higher derivatives) given the values at lower orders (or lower
derivatives). In particular, it follows that[51]

Modified Bessel functions follow similar relations:

and

and

The recurrence relation reads

where Cα denotes Iα or eαiπKα. These recurrence relations are useful for discrete diffusion problems.

Transcendence
J'ν(x)
In 1929, Carl Ludwig Siegel proved that Jν(x), J'ν(x), and the logarithmic derivative ⁠
Jν(x) ⁠
are transcendental numbers when ν is rational

and x is algebraic and nonzero.[52] The same proof also implies that Kν(x) is transcendental under the same assumptions.[53]

Sums with Bessel functions

The product of two Bessel functions admits the following sum:
From these equalities it follows that

and as a consequence

These sums can be extended for a polynomial prefactor. For example,

Multiplication theorem
The Bessel functions obey a multiplication theorem

where λ and ν may be taken as arbitrary complex numbers.[54][55] For |λ2 − 1| < 1,[54] the above expression also holds if J is replaced by Y.
The analogous identities for modified Bessel functions and |λ2 − 1| < 1 are

and

Zeros of the Bessel function

Bourget's hypothesis
Bessel himself originally proved that for nonnegative integers n, the equation Jn(x) = 0 has an infinite number of solutions in x.[56] When the
functions Jn(x) are plotted on the same graph, though, none of the zeros seem to coincide for different values of n except for the zero at
x = 0. This phenomenon is known as Bourget's hypothesis after the 19th-century French mathematician who studied Bessel functions.
Specifically it states that for any integers n ≥ 0 and m ≥ 1, the functions Jn(x) and Jn + m(x) have no common zeros other than the one at
x = 0. The hypothesis was proved by Carl Ludwig Siegel in 1929.[57]

Transcendence
Siegel proved in 1929 that when ν is rational, all nonzero roots of Jν(x) and J'ν(x) are transcendental,[58] as are all the roots of Kν(x).[53] It
is also known that all roots of the higher derivatives for n ≤ 18 are transcendental, except for the special values and
.[58]

Numerical approaches
For numerical studies about the zeros of the Bessel function, see Gil, Segura & Temme (2007), Kravanja et al. (1998) and Moler (2004).

Numerical values
The first zeros in J0 (i.e., j0,1, j0,2 and j0,3) occur at arguments of approximately 2.40483, 5.52008 and 8.65373, respectively.[59]

See also
Anger function Lerche–Newberger sum rule
Bessel polynomials Lommel function
Bessel–Clifford function Lommel polynomial
Bessel–Maitland function Neumann polynomial
Fourier–Bessel series Riccati-Bessel Functions (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Ri
Hahn–Exton q-Bessel function ccati-BesselFunctions.html)
Hankel transform Schlömilch's series
Incomplete Bessel functions Sonine formula
Jackson q-Bessel function Struve function
Kelvin functions Vibrations of a circular membrane
Kontorovich–Lebedev transform Weber function (defined at Anger function)
Lentz's algorithm Gauss' circle problem

Notes
1. Wilensky, Michael; Brown, Jordan; Hazelton, Bryna (June 2023). "Why and when to expect Gaussian error distributions in
epoch of reionization 21-cm power spectrum measurements" (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstad863). Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 521 (4): 5191–5206. arXiv:2211.13576 (https://arxiv.org/abs/2211.13576).
doi:10.1093/mnras/stad863 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstad863).
2. Weisstein, Eric W. "Spherical Bessel Function of the Second Kind" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/SphericalBesselFunctiono
ftheSecondKind.html). MathWorld.
3. Weisstein, Eric W. "Bessel Function of the Second Kind" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BesselFunctionoftheSecondKind.ht
ml). MathWorld.
4. Abramowitz and Stegun, p. 360, 9.1.10 (https://personal.math.ubc.ca/~cbm/aands/page_360.htm).
5. Whittaker, Edmund Taylor; Watson, George Neville (1927). A Course of Modern Analysis (4th ed.). Cambridge University
Press. p. 356. For example, Hansen (1843) and Schlömilch (1857).
6. Abramowitz and Stegun, p. 358, 9.1.5 (https://personal.math.ubc.ca/~cbm/aands/page_358.htm).
7. Temme, Nico M. (1996). Special Functions: An introduction to the classical functions of mathematical physics (2nd print ed.).
New York: Wiley. pp. 228–231. ISBN 0471113131.
8. Weisstein, Eric W. "Hansen-Bessel Formula" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Hansen-BesselFormula.html). MathWorld.
9. Bessel, F. (1824). The relevant integral is an unnumbered equation between equations 28 and 29. Note that Bessel's
would today be written .
10. Watson, p. 176 (https://books.google.com/books?id=Mlk3FrNoEVoC&pg=PA176)
11. "Properties of Hankel and Bessel Functions" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100923194031/http://www.math.ohio-state.edu/~
gerlach/math/BVtypset/node122.html). Archived from the original (http://www.math.ohio-state.edu/~gerlach/math/BVtypset/no
de122.html) on 2010-09-23. Retrieved 2010-10-18.
12. "Integral representations of the Bessel function" (https://web.archive.org/web/20221003054117/https://www.nbi.dk/~polesen/b
orel/node15.html). www.nbi.dk. Archived from the original (https://www.nbi.dk/~polesen/borel/node15.html) on 3 October
2022. Retrieved 25 March 2018.
13. Arfken & Weber, exercise 11.1.17.
14. Abramowitz and Stegun, p. 362, 9.1.69 (https://personal.math.ubc.ca/~cbm/aands/page_362.htm).
15. Szegő, Gábor (1975). Orthogonal Polynomials (4th ed.). Providence, RI: AMS.
16. "Bessel Functions of the First and Second Kind" (http://www.mhtlab.uwaterloo.ca/courses/me755/web_chap4.pdf) (PDF).
mhtlab.uwaterloo.ca. p. 3. Archived (https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.mhtlab.uwaterloo.ca/courses/me7
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External links
Lizorkin, P. I. (2001) [1994], "Bessel functions" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Bessel_functions),
Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press.
Karmazina, L. N.; Prudnikov, A.P. (2001) [1994], "Cylinder function" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Cyli
nder_function), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press.
Rozov, N. Kh. (2001) [1994], "Bessel equation" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Bessel_equation),
Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press.
Wolfram function pages on Bessel J (https://functions.wolfram.com/Bessel-TypeFunctions/BesselJ/) and Y (https://functions.
wolfram.com/Bessel-TypeFunctions/BesselY/) functions, and modified Bessel I (https://functions.wolfram.com/Bessel-TypeFu
nctions/BesselI/) and K (https://functions.wolfram.com/Bessel-TypeFunctions/BesselK/) functions. Pages include formulas,
function evaluators, and plotting calculators.
 Weisstein, Eric W. "Bessel functions of the first kind" (https://mathworld.wolfram.com/BesselFunctionoftheFirstKind.html).
MathWorld.
Bessel functions Jν (http://www.librow.com/articles/article-11/appendix-a-34), Yν (http://www.librow.com/articles/article-11/app
endix-a-35), Iν (http://www.librow.com/articles/article-11/appendix-a-36) and Kν (http://www.librow.com/articles/article-11/appe
ndix-a-37) in Librow Function handbook (http://www.librow.com/articles/article-11).
F. W. J. Olver, L. C. Maximon, Bessel Functions (https://dlmf.nist.gov/10) (chapter 10 of the Digital Library of Mathematical
Functions).
Moler, C. B. (2004). Numerical Computing with MATLAB (https://web.archive.org/web/20170808214249/http://tocs.ulb.tu-dar
mstadt.de/124154883.pdf) (PDF). Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. Archived from the original (http://tocs.ulb.tu
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