Biology

for Cambridge International AS & A Level

COURSEBOOK

Mary Jones, Richard Fosbery, Dennis Taylor & Jennifer Gregory

Fifth edition Digital Access

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 i
rs

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 Biology
for Cambridge International AS & A Level
COURSEBOOK

Mary Jones, Richard Fosbery, Dennis Taylor & Jennifer Gregory

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University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
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 Teachers play an important part in shaping futures.
Our Dedicated Teacher Awards recognise the hard
work that teachers put in every day.
Thank you to everyone who nominated this year; we have been inspired and moved
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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

Contents
Introduction vii 4 Cell membranes and transport
4.1 The importance of membranes 98
How to use this series ix
4.2 Structure of membranes 98
How to use this book xi 4.3 Roles of the molecules found in
membranes 101
1 Cell structure 4.4 Cell signalling 102
1.1 Cells are the basic units of life 3 4.5 Movement of substances across
1.2 Cell biology and microscopy 4 membranes 104
1.3 Plant and animal cells as seen with
a light microscope 4 5 The mitotic cell cycle
1.4 Measuring size and calculating 5.1 Growth and reproduction 124
magnification 11 5.2 Chromosomes 125
1.5 Electron microscopy 14 5.3 The cell cycle 126
1.6 Plant and animal cells as seen with an 5.4 Mitosis 127
electron microscope 17 5.5 The role of telomeres 132
1.7 Bacteria 32 5.6 The role of stem cells 133
1.8 Comparing prokaryotic cells with 5.7 Cancers 134
eukaryotic cells 34
1.9 Viruses 34 6 Nucleic acids and protein synthesis
6.1 The molecule of life 144
2 Biological molecules
6.2 The structure of DNA and RNA 144
2.1 Biochemistry 45
6.3 DNA replication 149
2.2 The building blocks of life 45
6.4 The genetic code 150
2.3 Monomers, polymers and
macromolecules 45 6.5 Protein synthesis 151
2.4 Carbohydrates 46 6.6 Gene mutations 153
2.5 Lipids 53 7 Transport in plants
2.6 Proteins 57
7.1 The transport needs of plants 163
2.7 Water 66
7.2 Vascular system: xylem and phloem 163
3 Enzymes 7.3 Structure of stems, roots and leaves and
the distribution of xylem and phloem 164
3.1 What is an enzyme? 75
7.4 The transport of water 170
3.2 Mode of action of enzymes 76
7.5 Transport of assimilates 180
3.3 Investigating the progress of an
enzyme-catalysed reaction 79 8 Transport in mammals
3.4 Factors that affect enzyme action 81
8.1 Transport systems in animals 194
3.5 Comparing enzyme affinities 84
8.2 The mammalian circulatory system 194
3.6 Enzyme inhibitors 85
8.3 Blood vessels 195
3.7 Immobilising enzymes 87

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 Contents

8.4 Tissue fluid 200 13 Photosynthesis

8.5 Blood 202 13.1 An energy transfer process 332
8.6 The heart 209 13.2 Structure and function of chloroplasts 333
13.3 The light-dependent stage of
9 Gas exchange
photosynthesis 337
9.1 Gas exchange 224
13.4 The light-independent stage of
9.2 Lungs 225 photosynthesis 339
9.3 Trachea, bronchi and bronchioles 226 13.5 Limiting factors in photosynthesis 340
9.4 Warming and cleaning the air 226
9.5 Alveoli 228 14 Homeostasis
14.1 Homeostasis 349
10 Infectious disease 14.2 The structure of the kidney 352
10.1 Infectious diseases 238 14.3 Control of water content 360
10.2 Antibiotics 253 14.4 The control of blood glucose 364
14.5 Homeostasis in plants 371
11 Immunity
11.1 Defence against disease 267 15 Control and coordination
11.2 Cells of the immune system 268 15.1 Hormonal communication 388
11.3 Active and passive immunity 277 15.2 Nervous communication 389
15.3 Muscle contraction 406
P1 Practical skills for AS Level
15.4 Control and coordination in plants 413
P1.1 Practical skills 292
P1.2 Experiments 292 16 Inheritance
P1.3 Variables and making measurements 292 16.1 Gametes and reproduction 428
P1.4 Recording quantitative results 298 16.2 The production of genetic variation 433
P1.5 Displaying data 299 16.3 Genetics 435
P1.6 Making conclusions 301 16.4 Monohybrid inheritance and genetic
P1.7 Describing data 301 diagrams 437
P1.8 Making calculations from data 301 16.5 Dihybrid inheritance 441
P1.9 Identifying sources of error and 16.6 The chi-squared (χ2) test 449
suggesting improvements 303 16.7 Genes, proteins and phenotype 451
P1.10 Drawings 304 16.8 Control of gene expression 453

12 Energy and respiration 17 Selection and evolution

12.1 The need for energy in living organisms 312 17.1 Variation 465
12.2 Aerobic respiration 313 17.2 Natural selection 469
12.3 Mitochondrial structure and function 319 17.3 Genetic drift and the founder effect 474
12.4 Respiration without oxygen 320 17.4 The Hardy–Weinberg principle 476
12.5 Respiratory substrates 322 17.5 Artificial selection 478
17.6 Evolution 482
17.7 Identifying evolutionary relationships 486

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

18 Classification, biodiversity and P2 Practical skills for A Level

conservation P2.1 Practical skills 582
18.1 Classification 497 P2.2 Planning an investigation 582
18.2 Biodiversity 507 P2.3 Constructing a hypothesis 582
18.3 Maintaining biodiversity 521 P2.4 Identifying variables 583
18.4 Protecting endangered species 524 P2.5 Describing the sequence of steps 586
18.5 Controlling alien species 530 P2.6 Risk assessment 586
18.6 International conservation P2.7 Recording and displaying results 587
organisations 531 P2.8 Analysis, conclusions and evaluation 587
P2.9 Evaluating evidence 600
19 Genetic technology
P2.10 Conclusions and discussion 600
19.1 Genetic engineering 544
19.2 Tools for the gene technologist 545 Appendix 1: Amino acid R groups 608
19.3 Gene editing 552
19.4 Separating and amplifying DNA 555 Appendix 2: DNA and RNA triplet codes 609
19.5 Analysing and storing genetic
information 560 Glossary 611
19.6 Genetic technology and medicine 564 Index 631
19.7 Genetic technology and agriculture 570
Acknowledgements 643

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 Introduction

Introduction
This is the fifth edition of the Cambridge International AS & A Level Biology
Coursebook, and it provides everything that you need to support your course for
Cambridge AS & A Level Biology (9700). It provides full coverage of the syllabus for
examinations from 2022 onwards.
The chapters are arranged in the same sequence as the topics in the syllabus.
Chapters 1 to P1 cover the AS material, and Chapters 12 to P2 cover the material
needed for A Level. The various features that you will find in these chapters are
explained on the next two pages.
Many questions will test a deeper understanding of the facts and concepts that you
will learn during your course. It is therefore not enough just to learn words and
diagrams that you can repeat in your examinations; you need to ensure that you really
understand each concept fully. Trying to answer the questions that you will find within
each chapter, and at the end of each chapter, should help you to do this.
Although you will study your biology as a series of different topics, it is very important
to appreciate that all of these topics link up with each other. You need to make links
between different areas of the syllabus to answer some questions. For example, you
might be asked a question that involves bringing together knowledge about protein
synthesis, infectious disease and transport in mammals. In particular, you will find that
certain key concepts come up again and again. These include:
• Cells as units of life
• Biochemical processes
• DNA, the molecule of heredity
• Natural selection
• Organisms in their environment
• Observation and experiment.
As you work through your course, make sure that you keep reflecting on the work that
you did earlier and how it relates to the current topic that you are studying. Some of
the reflection questions at the ends of the chapters suggest particular links that you
could think about. They also ask you to think about how you learn, which may help
you to make the very best use of your time and abilities as your course progresses. You
can also use the self-evaluation checklists at the end of each chapter to decide how well
you have understood each topic in the syllabus, and whether or not you need to do
more work on each one.
Practical skills are an important part of your biology course. You will develop these skills
as you do experiments and other practical work related to the topics you are studying.
Chapters P1 (for AS Level) and P2 (for A Level) explain what these skills are and what
you need to be able to do.

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

You may like to look at two other books in this series – the Workbook and the
Practical Workbook. The Workbook provides clear guidance on many of the skills
that you need to develop as you work through the course – such as constructing
and analysing graphs, and planning experiments – with exercises for you to try.
The Practical Workbook is full of detailed explanations of how to carry out all the
practicals required in the syllabus, and many others too, that will help you to become
more confident in practical work.
This is an exciting time to be studying biology, with new discoveries and technologies
constantly finding their way into the news. We very much hope that you will enjoy
your biology course, and that this book will help you not only to prepare for your
examinations but also to develop a life-long interest in this subject.

viii

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 How to use this series

How to use this series

This suite of resources supports students and teachers following the Cambridge
International AS & A Level Biology syllabus (9700). All of the books in the series
work together to help students develop the necessary knowledge and scientific
skills required for this subject. With clear language and style, they are designed for
international learners.

The coursebook provides comprehensive support

Biology for the full Cambridge International AS & A
for Cambridge International AS & A Level Level Biology syllabus (9700). It clearly explains
COURSEBOOK facts, concepts and practical techniques, and
Mary Jones, Richard Fosbery, Dennis Taylor & Jennifer Gregory uses real-world examples of scientific principles.
Two chapters provide full guidance to help
students develop investigative skills. Questions
within each chapter help them to develop their
understanding, while exam-style questions
provide essential practice.

Fifth edition Digital Access

The workbook contains over 100

exercises and exam-style questions, Biology
carefully constructed to help learners for Cambridge International AS & A Level
develop the skills that they need as they WORKBOOK

progress through their Biology course. Mary Jones & Matthew Parkin

The exercises also help students develop

understanding of the meaning of various
command words used in questions,
and provide practice in responding
appropriately to these.

Second edition Digital Access

ix

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

Biology
for Cambridge International AS & A Level
This write-in book provides students with a wealth
PRACTICAL WORKBOOK
of hands-on practical work, giving them full guidance
Mary Jones & Matthew Parkin and support that will help them to develop all of
the essential investigative skills. These skills include
planning investigations, selecting and handling
apparatus, creating hypotheses, recording and
displaying results, and analysing and evaluating data.

Second edition

The teacher’s resource supports and enhances the questions and practical activities
in the coursebook. This resource includes detailed lesson ideas, as well as answers
and exemplar data for all questions and activities in the coursebook and workbook.
The practical teacher’s guide, included with this resource, provides support for the
practical activities and experiments in the practical workbook.
Teaching notes for each topic area include a suggested teaching plan, ideas for
active learning and formative assessment, links to resources, ideas for lesson starters
and plenaries, differentiation, lists of common misconceptions and suggestions
for homework activities. Answers are included for every
question and exercise in the coursebook, workbook
and practical workbook. Detailed support is provided
for preparing and carrying out for all the investigations
in the practical workbook, including tips for getting
things to work well, and a set of sample results that can
be used if students cannot do the experiment, or fail to Biology
collect results. for Cambridge International
AS & A Level

Biology
for Cambridge International AS & A Level
DIGITAL TEACHER’S RESOURCE ACCESS CARD

Digital Teacher’s Resource

DO NOT Code inside is required to activate your

DISCARD purchase of the Teacher’s Resource

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 How to use this book

How to use this book

Throughout this book, you will notice lots of different features that will help your
learning. These are explained below.

LEARNING INTENTIONS KEY WORDS

These set the scene for each chapter, help with navigation through the Key vocabulary
coursebook and indicate the important concepts in each topic. is highlighted in
the text when it is
first introduced.
BEFORE YOU START Definitions are then
given in the margin,
This contains questions and activities on subject knowledge you will need which explain the
before starting this chapter. meanings of these
words and phrases.
You will also find
SCIENCE IN CONTEXT definitions of these
This feature presents real-world examples and applications of the content in words in the Glossary
a chapter, encouraging you to look further into topics. There are discussion at the back of this
questions at the end which look at some of the benefits and problems of these book.
applications.

COMMAND WORDS
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY Command words
This book does not contain detailed instructions for doing particular that appear in the
experiments, but you will find background information about the practical work syllabus and might
you need to do in these boxes. There are also two chapters, P1 and P2, which be used in exams are
provide detailed information about the practical skills you need to develop highlighted in the
during the course. exam-style questions
when they are first
introduced. In the
margin, you will
Questions find the Cambridge
Appearing throughout the text, questions give you a chance to check that you have International
understood the topic you have just read about. You can find the answers to these definition. You will
questions in the digital version of the Coursebook. also find these
definitions in the
Glossary at the
back of the book
with some further
explanation on the
meaning of these
words.*
*The information in this section is taken from the Cambridge International syllabus (9700) for examination
from 2022. You should always refer to the appropriate syllabus document for the year of your examination
to confirm the details and for more information. The syllabus document is available on the Cambridge
International website at www.cambridgeinternational.org.

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

WORKED EXAMPLE
Wherever you need to know how to use a formula to carry out a calculation,
there are worked examples boxes to show you how to do this.

REFLECTION IMPORTANT
These activities ask you to look back on the topics covered in the chapter and Important equations,
test how well you understand these topics and encourage you to reflect on facts and tips are
your learning. given in these boxes.

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
Questions at the end of each chapter provide more demanding exam-style questions, some of which may require
use of knowledge from previous chapters. Some questions are taken from past papers. Where this is the case, they
include references to the relevant past paper. All other questions are written by the authors. Answers to these
questions can be found in the digital version of the Coursebook.

SUMMARY

There is a summary of key points at the end of each chapter.

SELF-EVALUATION
The summary checklists are followed by ‘I can’ statements which match the Learning intentions at the beginning
of the chapter. You might find it helpful to rate how confident you are for each of these statements when you are
revising. You should revisit any topics that you rated ‘Needs more work’ or ‘Almost there’.

See Needs Almost Ready to

I can
section more work there move on

These boxes tell you where information in the book is extension content,
and is not part of the syllabus.

xii

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 Chapter 1

Cell structure

LEARNING INTENTIONS
In this chapter you will learn how to:
• explain that cells are the basic units of life
• use the units of measurement relevant to microscopy
• recognise the common structures found in cells as seen with a light microscope and outline their
structures and functions
• compare the key structural features of animal and plant cells
• use a light microscope and make temporary preparations to observe cells
• recognise, draw and measure cell structures from temporary preparations and micrographs
• calculate magnifications of images and actual sizes of specimens using drawings or micrographs
• explain the use of the electron microscope to study cells with reference to the increased resolution of
electron microscopes
• recognise the common structures found in cells as seen with an electron microscope and outline their
structures and functions
• outline briefly the role of ATP in cells
• describe the structure of bacteria and compare the structure of prokaryotic cells with eukaryotic cells
• describe the structure of viruses.

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

BEFORE YOU START

• Make a list of structures that could be found in a cell.
• Try to write down the functions of the structures you have listed.
• Which structures are found in plant cells and which are found in animal cells?
• Are there any cells that are not animal or plant cells?

THINKING OUTSIDE THE BOX

Progress in science often depends on people
thinking ‘outside the box’ – original thinkers who
are often ignored or even ridiculed when they
first put forward their radical new ideas. One such
individual, who battled constantly throughout
her career to get her ideas accepted, was the
American biologist Lynn Margulis (1938–2011;
Figure 1.1). Her greatest achievement was to use
evidence from microbiology to help firmly establish
an idea that had been around since the mid-19th
century – that new organisms can be created from
combinations of existing organisms. Importantly,
the existing organisms are not necessarily closely
related. The organisms form a symbiotic partnership
(they live together in a partnership in which both
partners benefit). Margulis imagined that one
organism engulfed (‘ate’) another. Normally the
engulfed organism would be digested and killed, Figure 1.1: Lynn Margulis: ‘My work more than didn’t fit
but sometimes the organism engulfed may survive in. It crossed the boundaries that people had spent their
and even be of benefit to the organism in which lives building up. It hits some 30 sub-fields of biology,
it finds itself. This type of symbiosis is known as even geology.’
endosymbiosis (‘endo’ means inside). A completely
new type of organism is created, representing a traditional view, first put forward by Charles Darwin,
dramatic evolutionary change. that evolution occurs mainly as a result of
competition between species.
The best-known example of Margulis’ ideas is her
suggestion that mitochondria and chloroplasts Questions for discussion
were originally free-living bacteria (prokaryotes). • Can you think of any ideas people have had
She suggested that these bacteria invaded the which were controversial at the time but
ancestors of modern eukaryotic cells, which are are now accepted? Try to think of scientific
much larger and more complex cells than bacteria, examples. You may also like to consider why
and entered into a symbiotic relationship with the ideas were controversial.
the cells. This idea has been confirmed as true by
later work. Margulis saw such symbiotic unions • Can you think of any scientific ideas people
as a major driving cause of evolutionary change. have now which are controversial and not
Throughout her life, she continued to challenge the accepted by everybody?

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 1 Cell structure

animals. It was soon also realised that all cells come from
1.1 Cells are the basic pre-existing cells by the process of cell division. This
raises the obvious question of where the original cell
units of life came from. There are many hypotheses, but we still have
no definite answers to this question.
Towards the middle of the 19th century, scientists made a
fundamental breakthrough in our understanding of how life
‘works’. They realised that the basic unit of life is the cell. Why cells?
The origins of this idea go back to the early days of A cell can be thought of as a bag in which the chemistry
microscopy when an English scientist, Robert Hooke, of life occurs. The activity going on inside the cell is
decided to examine thin slices of plant material. He therefore separated from the environment outside the cell.
chose cork as one of his examples. Looking down the The bag, or cell, is surrounded by a thin membrane. The
microscope, he made a drawing to show the regular membrane is an essential feature of all cells because it
appearance of the structure, as you can see in Figure 1.2. controls exchange between the cell and its environment.
In 1665 he published a book containing It can act as a barrier, but it can also control movement
this drawing. of materials across the membrane in both directions. The
membrane is therefore described as partially permeable.
If it were freely permeable, life could not exist, because
the chemicals of the cell would simply mix with the
surrounding chemicals by diffusion and the inside of the
cell would be the same as the outside.

Two types of cell

During the 20th century, scientists studying the cells
of bacteria and of more complex organisms such as
plants and animals began to realise that there were
two fundamentally different kinds of cells. Some cells
were very simple, but some were much larger and more
complex. The complex cells contained a nucleus (plural:
nuclei) surrounded by two membranes. The genetic
material, DNA, was in the nucleus. In the simple cells
the DNA was not surrounded by membranes, but
apparently free in the cytoplasm.

Figure 1.2: Drawing of cork cells published by Robert KEY WORDS

Hooke in 1665.
cell: the basic unit of all living organisms; it is
surrounded by a cell surface membrane and
If you examine the drawing you will see the regular
contains genetic material (DNA) and cytoplasm
structures that Hooke called ‘cells’. Each cell appeared
containing organelles
to be an empty box surrounded by a wall. Hooke had
discovered and described, without realising it, the organelle: a functionally and structurally distinct
fundamental unit of all living things. part of a cell, e.g. a ribosome or mitochondrion
Although we now know that the cells of cork are dead, nucleus (plural: nuclei): a relatively large
Hooke and other scientists made further observations of organelle found in eukaryotic cells, but absent
cells in living materials. However, it was not until almost from prokaryotic cells; the nucleus contains the
200 years later that a general cell theory emerged from cell’s DNA and therefore controls the activities
the work of two German scientists. In 1838 Schleiden, of the cell; it is surrounded by two membranes
a botanist, suggested that all plants are made of cells. A which together form the nuclear envelope
year later Schwann, a zoologist, suggested the same for

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

Organisms made of cells with membrane-bound are unfamiliar to most people. Before studying light and
nuclei are now known as eukaryotes, while the simpler electron microscopy further, you need to become familiar
cells lacking membrane-bound nuclei are known as with these units.
prokaryotes (‘eu’ means true, ‘karyon’ means nucleus,
According to international agreement, the International
‘pro’ means before). Eukaryotes are thought to have
System of Units (SI units) should be used. In this system,
evolved from prokaryotes more than two billion years
the basic unit of length is the metre (symbol, m). More
ago. Prokaryotes include bacteria. Eukaryotes include
units are created by going a thousand times larger or
animals, plants, fungi and some other organisms.
smaller. Standard prefixes are used for the units. For
example, the prefix ‘kilo’ means 1000 times. Thus,
KEY WORDS 1 kilometre = 1000 metres. The units of length relevant
to cell studies are shown in Table 1.1.
eukaryote: an organism whose cells contain a
nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles The smallest structure visible with the human eye is
about 50–100 μm in diameter (roughly the diameter of
prokaryote: an organism whose cells do not the sharp end of a pin). The cells in your body vary in
contain a nucleus or any other membrane-bound size from about 5 μm to 40 μm. It is difficult to imagine
organelles how small these cells are, especially when they are clearly
visible using a microscope. An average bacterial cell is
about 1 µm across. One of the smallest structures you
will study in this book is the ribosome, which is only
1.2 Cell biology and about 25 nm in diameter! You could line up about
20 000 ribosomes across the full stop at the end of
microscopy this sentence.

The study of cells has given rise to an important branch

of biology known as cell biology. Cell biologists study
cells using many different methods, including the use of
various types of microscope.
1.3 Plant and animal
There are two fundamentally different types of cells as seen with a light
microscope: the light microscope and the electron
microscope. Both use a form of radiation in order to
see the specimen being examined. The light microscope
microscope
uses light as a source of radiation, while the electron Microscopes that use light as a source of radiation are
microscope uses electrons, for reasons which are called light microscopes. Figure 1.3 shows how the light
discussed later. microscope works.

Note: the structure of a light microscope is

Units of measurement extension content, and is not part of the syllabus.
In order to measure objects in the microscopic world,
we need to use very small units of measurement, which

Fraction of a metre Unit Symbol

–3
one thousandth = 0.001 = 1/1000 = 10 millimetre mm
–6
one millionth = 0.000 001 = 1/1000 000 = 10 micrometre μm
one thousand millionth = 0.000 000 001 = nanometre nm
1/1000 000 000 = 10–9

Table 1.1: Units of measurement relevant to cell studies: 1 micrometre is a thousandth of a millimetre; 1 nanometre is a
thousandth of a micrometre.

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 1 Cell structure

Eyepiece lens magnifies and showing the structure of a generalised plant cell, both
eyepiece
focuses the image from the as seen with a light microscope. (A generalised cell
objective onto the eye. shows all the structures that may commonly be found
in a cell.) Figures 1.6 and 1.7 are photomicrographs.
light beam
A photomicrograph is a photograph of a specimen as
seen with a light microscope. Figure 1.6 shows some
human cells. Figure 1.7 shows a plant cell taken from a
leaf. Both figures show cells magnified 400 times, which
objective Objective lens collects light is equivalent to using the high-power objective lens on
coverslip passing through the specimen a light microscope. See also Figures 1.8a and 1.8b for
and produces a magnified image. labelled drawings of these figures.
glass slide
Many of the cell contents are colourless and transparent
Condenser lens focuses the so they need to be stained with coloured dyes to be seen.
condenser
light onto the specimen held The human cells in Figure 1.6 have been stained. The
between the coverslip and slide. chromatin in the nuclei is particularly heavily stained.
iris diaphragm
The plant cells in Figure 1.5 have not been stained
light source Condenser iris diaphragm is
because the chloroplasts contain the green pigment
closed slightly to produce a
pathway of light narrow beam of light.
chlorophyll and are easily visible without staining.

Figure 1.3: How the light microscope works. The coverslip is

a thin sheet of glass used to cover the specimen. It protects
specimens from drying out and also prevents the objective
Question
lens from touching the specimen. 1 Using Figures 1.4 and 1.5, name the structures that:
a animal and plant cells have in common
small structures that b are found only in plant cells
Golgi apparatus are difficult to identify c are found only in animal cells.
cytoplasm

mitochondria Features that animal and plant

cells have in common
Cell surface membrane
cell surface All cells, including those of both eukaryotes and
membrane prokaryotes, are surrounded by a very thin cell surface
membrane. This is also sometimes referred to as the
plasma membrane. As mentioned before, it is partially
permeable and controls the exchange of materials
between the cell and its environment.
nuclear envelope
chromatin – Nucleus
centriole – always deeply staining
nucleus All eukaryotic cells contain a nucleus. The nucleus
found near nucleus and thread-like
is a relatively large structure. It stains intensely and
nucleolus –
deeply staining
KEY WORD
Figure 1.4: Structure of a generalised animal cell (diameter
about 20 μm) as seen with a very high quality light cell surface membrane: a very thin membrane
microscope. (about 7 nm diameter) surrounding all cells; it is
partially permeable and controls the exchange of
Figure 1.4 is a drawing showing the structure of a materials between the cell and its environment
generalised animal cell and Figure 1.5 is a drawing

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

middle lamella – thin layer

tonoplast – membrane
holding cells together
surrounding vacuole

cell surface membrane plasmodesma –

(pressed against cell wall) connects cytoplasm
of neighbouring cells
vacuole – large cell wall of
with central position neighbouring
cell
cytoplasm

cell wall
mitochondria
chloroplast

nucleolus –
deeply staining grana just visible
nuclear envelope
nucleus
chromatin – small structures that
deeply staining are difficult to identify
and thread-like Golgi apparatus

Figure 1.5: Structure of a generalised plant cell (diameter about 40 μm) as seen with a very high quality light microscope.

Figure 1.6: Cells from the lining of the human cheek (×400). Figure 1.7: Cells in a moss leaf (×400). Many green chloroplasts
Each cell shows a centrally placed nucleus, which is typical are visible inside each cell. The grana are just visible as black
of animal cells. The cells are part of a tissue known as grains inside the chloroplasts (‘grana’ means grains). Cell walls
squamous (flattened) epithelium. are also clearly visible (animal cells lack cell walls).

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 1 Cell structure

is therefore very easy to see when looking down the

microscope. The deeply staining material in the nucleus KEY WORDS
is called chromatin (‘chroma’ means colour). Chromatin chromatin: the material of which chromosomes
is a mass of coiled threads. The threads are seen to are made, consisting of DNA, proteins and small
collect together to form chromosomes during nuclear amounts of RNA; visible as patches or fibres
division (Chapter 5, Section 5.2, Chromosomes). within the nucleus when stained
Chromatin contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the
molecule which contains the instructions (genes) that chromosome: in the nucleus of the cells of
control the activities of the cell (Chapter 6). eukaryotes, a structure made of tightly coiled
chromatin (DNA, proteins and RNA) visible during
Inside the nucleus an even more deeply staining area cell division; the term ‘circular DNA’ is now also
is visible, the nucleolus. This is made of loops of DNA commonly used for the circular strand of DNA
from several chromosomes. The number of nucleoli is present in a prokaryotic cell
variable, one to five being common in mammals. One of
nucleolus: a small structure, one or more of
the main functions of nucleoli is to make ribosomes.
which is found inside the nucleus; the nucleolus
is usually visible as a densely stained body; its
Cytoplasm function is to manufacture ribosomes using the
All the living material inside the cell is called protoplasm. information in its own DNA
It is also useful to have a term for all the living material
protoplasm: all the living material inside a cell
outside the nucleus; it is called cytoplasm. Therefore,
(cytoplasm plus nucleus)
cytoplasm + nucleus = protoplasm.
cytoplasm: the contents of a cell, excluding
Cytoplasm is an aqueous (watery) material, varying the nucleus
from a fluid to a jelly-like consistency. Using a light
microscope, many small structures can be seen within mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria): the
it. These have been likened to small organs and are organelle in eukaryotes in which aerobic
therefore known as organelles (meaning ‘little organs’). respiration takes place
An organelle can be defined as a functionally and cell wall: a wall surrounding prokaryote, plant
structurally distinct part of a cell. Organelles are often, and fungal cells; the wall contains a strengthening
but not always, surrounded by one or two membranes material which protects the cell from mechanical
so that their activities can be separated from the damage, supports it and prevents it from bursting
surrounding cytoplasm. Organising cell activities in by osmosis if the cell is surrounded by a solution
separate compartments is essential for a structure as with a higher water potential
complex as an animal or plant cell to work efficiently.

Mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) Differences between

The most numerous organelles seen with the light
microscope are usually mitochondria (singular: animal and plant cells
mitochondrion). Mitochondria are only just visible using One of the structures commonly found in animal cells
a light microscope. Videos of living cells, taken with the which is absent from plant cells is the centriole. Plant
aid of a light microscope, have shown that mitochondria cells also differ from animal cells in possessing cell walls,
can move about, change shape and divide. They are large permanent vacuoles and chloroplasts.
specialised to carry out aerobic respiration.
Centrioles
Golgi apparatus Under the light microscope the centriole appears as
The use of special stains containing silver resulted in the a small structure close to the nucleus (Figure 1.4).
Golgi apparatus being discovered in 1898 by Camillo Centrioles are discussed later in this chapter.
Golgi. The Golgi apparatus collects and processes
molecules within the cell, particularly proteins.
Cell walls and plasmodesmata
With a light microscope, individual plant cells are more
easily seen than animal cells. This is because they are
Note: you do not need to learn this structure. It is
usually larger and, unlike animal cells, are surrounded
sometimes called the Golgi body or Golgi complex.
by a cell wall. Note that the cell wall is an extra

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

structure which is outside the cell surface membrane. of the plant, mainly in the leaves. They are relatively
The wall is relatively rigid because it contains fibres large organelles and so are easily seen with a light
of cellulose, a polysaccharide which strengthens the microscope. It is even possible to see tiny ‘grains’ or
wall. The cell wall gives the cell a definite shape. It grana (singular: granum) inside the chloroplasts using
prevents the cell from bursting when water enters by a light microscope (Figure 1.7). These are the parts
osmosis, allowing large pressures to develop inside the of the chloroplast that contain chlorophyll, the green
cell (Chapter 4, Section 4.5, Movement of substances pigment which absorbs light during the process of
across membranes). Cell walls may be reinforced with photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are discussed further in
extra cellulose or with a hard material called lignin Chapter 13 (Section 13.2, Structure and function of
for extra strength (Chapter 7). Cell walls are freely chloroplasts).
permeable, allowing free movement of molecules and
ions through to the cell surface membrane.
KEY WORDS
Plant cells are linked to neighbouring cells by means
of pores containing fine strands of cytoplasm. plasmodesma (plural: plasmodesmata): a
These structures are called plasmodesmata (singular: pore-like structure found in plant cell walls;
plasmodesma). They are lined with the cell surface plasmodesmata of neighbouring plant cells line
membrane. Movement through the pores is thought to up to form tube-like pores through the cell walls,
be controlled by the structure of the pores. allowing the controlled passage of materials from
one cell to the other; the pores contain ER and
are lined with the cell surface membrane
Vacuoles
Vacuoles are sac-like structures which are surrounded vacuole: an organelle found in eukaryotic cells;
by a single membrane. Although animal cells may a large, permanent central vacuole is a typical
possess small vacuoles such as phagocytic vacuoles feature of plant cells, where it has a variety of
(Chapter 4, Section 4.5, Movement of substances functions, including storage of biochemicals such
across membranes), which are temporary structures, as salts, sugars and waste products; temporary
mature plant cells often possess a large, permanent, vacuoles, such as phagocytic vacuoles (also
central vacuole. The plant vacuole is surrounded by known as phagocytic vesicles), may form in
a membrane, the tonoplast, which controls exchange animal cells
between the vacuole and the cytoplasm. The fluid
tonoplast: the partially permeable membrane
in the vacuole is a solution of pigments, enzymes,
that surrounds plant vacuoles
sugars and other organic compounds (including some
waste products), mineral salts, oxygen and carbon chloroplast: an organelle, bounded by an
dioxide. envelope (i.e. two membranes), in which
In plants, vacuoles help to regulate the osmotic photosynthesis takes place in eukaryotes
properties of cells (the flow of water inwards and photosynthesis: the production of organic
outwards) as well as having a wide range of other substances from inorganic ones, using energy
functions. For example, the pigments which colour from light
the petals of certain flowers and the parts of some
vegetables, such as the red pigment of beetroots, may grana (singular: granum): stacks of membranes
be found in vacuoles. inside a chloroplast

Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are organelles specialised for the process
of photosynthesis. They are found in the green parts

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 1 Cell structure

IMPORTANT
• You can think of a plant cell as being very similar to an animal cell but with extra structures.
• Plant cells are often larger than animal cells, although cell size varies enormously.
• Do not confuse the cell wall with the cell surface membrane. Cell walls are relatively thick and physically
strong, whereas cell surface membranes are very thin. Cell walls are freely permeable, whereas cell
surface membranes are partially permeable. All cells have a cell surface membrane, but animal cells do
not have a cell wall.
• Vacuoles are not confined to plant cells; animal cells may have small vacuoles, such as phagocytic
vacuoles, although these are not usually permanent structures.

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 1.1

Making temporary slides black and will also colour nuclei and cell walls a pale
yellow. A dilute solution of methylene blue can be
A common method of examining material with a light
used to stain animal cells such as cheek cells.
microscope is to cut thin slices of the material called
‘sections’. The advantage of cutting sections is that Viewing specimens yourself with a microscope will
they are thin enough to allow light to pass through help you to understand and remember structures.
the section. The section is laid (‘mounted’) on a glass Your understanding can be reinforced by making
slide and covered with a coverslip to protect it. Light a pencil drawing on good quality plain paper.
passing through the section produces an image Remember always to draw what you see, and not
which can then be magnified using the objective and what you think you should see.
eyepiece lenses of the microscope.
Procedure
Biological material may be examined live or in a
preserved state. Prepared slides contain material that Place the biological specimen on a clean glass slide
has been killed and preserved in a life-like condition. and add one or two drops of stain. Carefully lower a
cover over the specimen to protect the microscope
Temporary slides are quicker and easier to prepare lens and to help prevent the specimen from drying
and are often used to examine fresh material out. Adding a drop of glycerine and mixing it with
containing living cells. In both cases the sections the stain can also help prevent drying out.
are typically stained before being mounted on the
glass slide. • Suitable animal material: human cheek cells
obtained by gently scraping the lining of the
Temporary preparations of fresh material are useful cheek with a finger nail
for quick preliminary investigations. Sometimes
• Suitable plant material: onion epidermal cells,
macerated (chopped up) material can be used,
lettuce epidermal cells, Chlorella cells, moss
as when examining the structure of wood (xylem).
slip leaves
A number of temporary stains are commonly used.
For example, iodine in potassium iodide solution (See Practical Investigation 1.1 in the Practical
is useful for plant specimens. It stains starch blue- Workbook for additional information.)

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PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 1.2

Biological drawing sections of Practical Activity 7.1 before answering

the question below, which is relevant to this chapter.
To reinforce your learning, you will find it useful to
Figures 1.8a and b show examples of good drawing
make labelled drawings of some of your temporary
and labelling technique based on Figures 1.6
and permanent slides, as well as labelled drawings
and 1.7. Note that it is acceptable to draw only
of photomicrographs.
a representative portion of the cell contents of
Practical Activity 7.1 in Chapter 7 provides general Figure 1.7, but add a label explaining this.
guidance on biological drawing. Read the relevant
a
cytoplasm

nucleus

chromatin

small structures (organelles?)

visible (not all drawn)

Question
2 A student was asked to make a high-power drawing
of three neighbouring cells from Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.9 shows the drawing made by the student.
Using Practical Activity 7.1 to help you, suggest how
b
the drawing in Figure 1.9 could be improved.

eus
cytoplasm nucl
representative
portion of chloroplast
cytoplasm cytoplasm
drawn grana visible?

cell wall

Figure 1.8: Examples of good drawing technique: a high-power

drawing of three neighbouring animal cells from Figure 1.6;
b high-power drawing of two neighbouring plant cells from Figure 1.9: A student’s high-power drawing of
Figure 1.7. three neighbouring cells from Figure 1.6.

(See Practical Investigation 1.1 in the Practical Workbook for additional information.)

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 1 Cell structure

1.4 Measuring size and Measuring cell size

Cells and organelles can be measured with a microscope
calculating magnification by means of an eyepiece graticule. This is a transparent
scale. It usually has 100 divisions (see Figure 1.10a).
Magnification is the number of times larger an image of The eyepiece graticule is placed in the microscope
an object is than the real size of the object. eyepiece so that it can be seen at the same time as
observed size of the image the object to be measured, as shown in Figure 1.10b.
magnification =
actual size Figure 1.10b shows the scale over one of a group of
or six human cheek epithelial cells (like those shown in
I Figure 1.6). The cell selected lies between 40 and 60 on
M = the scale. We therefore say it measures 20 eyepiece units
A
M = magnification in diameter (the difference between 60 and 40). We will
not know the actual size of the eyepiece units until the
I = observed size of the image (what you can measure
eyepiece graticule is calibrated.
with a ruler)
A = actual size (the real size – for example, the size of a KEY WORDS
cell before it is magnified).
If you know two of the values M, I and A, you can work magnification: the number of times larger an
out the third one. For example, if the observed size of image of an object is than the real size of the
the image and the magnification are known, you can object; magnification = image size ÷ actual (real)
I size of the object
work out the actual size A = . If you write the formula
M eyepiece graticule: small scale that is placed in a
in a triangle as shown below and cover up the value you
want to find, it should be obvious how to do the right microscope eyepiece
calculation.

M × A

a cheek cells on a slide b eyepiece graticule c

on the stage of the scale (arbitrary
microscope units)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

0 0.1 0.2

eyepiece
graticule in
the eyepiece
stage micrometer
of the
scale (marked in
microscope
0.01 mm and 0.1 mm
divisions)

Figure 1.10: Microscopical measurement. Three fields of view seen using a high-power (×40) objective lens: a an eyepiece
graticule scale; b superimposed images of human cheek epithelial cells and the eyepiece graticule scale; c superimposed
images of the eyepiece graticule scale and the stage micrometer scale.

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

To calibrate the eyepiece graticule, a miniature a

transparent ruler called a stage micrometer is placed on
the microscope stage and is brought into focus. This
scale may be etched onto a glass slide or printed on a
transparent film. It commonly has subdivisions of 0.1
and 0.01 mm. The images of the stage micrometer and
the eyepiece graticule can then be superimposed (placed
on top of one another) as shown in Figure 1.10c.

Calculating magnification
Figure 1.11 shows micrographs of two sections through
the same plant cell. The difference in appearance of the
two micrographs is explained in the next section.
If we know the actual (real) length of a cell in such a
micrograph, we can calculate its magnification, M, using b
the formula:
I
M =
A
epidermal cell
cell wall
KEY WORDS
chloroplast
stage micrometer: very small, accurately drawn
P starch grain
scale of known dimensions, engraved on a
microscope slide vacuole
nucleus
micrograph: a picture taken with the aid of a
microscope; a photomicrograph (or light mitochondrion
micrograph) is taken using a light microscope; cytoplasm
an electron micrograph is taken using an
electron microscope
Figure 1.11: Micrographs of two sections of the same
plant cells, as seen a with a light microscope, and b with
an electron microscope. Both are shown at the same
magnification (about ×750).

WORKED EXAMPLE

1 In the eyepiece graticule shown in Figure 1.10, The diameter of the cell shown superimposed
100 units measure 0.25 mm. Hence, the value of on the scale in Figure 1.8b measures 20 eyepiece
each eyepiece unit is: units and so its actual diameter is:
0.25
= 0.0025 mm 20 × 2.5 μm = 50 μm
100
This diameter is greater than that of many human
Or, converting mm to μm: cells because the cell is a flattened epithelial cell.
0. 25 1000
2. 5 µm
100

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 1 Cell structure

WORKED EXAMPLE
2 Suppose we want to know the magnification of the Step 3 Use the equation to calculate the
plant cell labelled P in Figure 1.11b. The real length magnification.
of the cell is 80 μm.
image size, l
Step 1 Measure the length in mm of the cell in the magnification, M =
actual size, A
micrograph using a ruler. You should find
50 000 µm
that it is about 50 mm. =
80 µm
Step 2 Convert mm to μm. (It is easier if we first = × 625
convert all measurements to the same
units – in this case micrometres, μm.) The multiplication sign (×) in front of the number
625 means ‘times’. We say that the magnification
So: 1 mm = 1000 µm is ‘times 625’.
50 mm = 50 × 1000 µm
= 50 000 µm

Question
3 a Calculate the magnification of the drawing of b Calculate the actual (real) length of the
the animal cell in Figure 1.4. chloroplast labelled X in Figure 1.34.

WORKED EXAMPLE
3 Figure 1.12 shows a lymphocyte with a scale Step 1 Measure the scale bar. Here, it is 36 mm.
bar. We can use this scale bar to calculate the Step 2 Convert mm to μm:
magnification.
36 mm = 36 × 1000 μm = 36 000 μm
Step 3 The scale bar represents 6 µm. This is the
actual size, A. Use the equation to calculate the
magnification:
image size, l
magnification, M =
actualsize, A
36 000µm
=
6µm
= × 6000
6 µm

Figure 1.12: A lymphocyte.

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

Calculating the real size of an separate points. If the two points cannot be resolved,
they will be seen as one point. In practice, resolution is
object from its magnification the amount of detail that can be seen – the greater the
resolution, the greater the detail.
To calculate the real or actual size of an object, we can
use the same magnification equation. The maximum resolution of a light microscope is 200 nm.
The reason for this is explained in the next section, ‘The
electromagnetic spectrum’. A resolution of 200 nm means
WORKED EXAMPLE that, if two points or objects are closer together than
200 nm, they cannot be distinguished as separate.
4 Figure 1.20 shows parts of three plant cells You might imagine that you could see more detail in
magnified ×5600. Suppose we want to know the Figure 1.11a by magnifying it (simply making it larger).
actual length of the labelled chloroplast in this In practice you would be able to see what is already
electron micrograph. there more easily, but you would not see any more
detail. The image would just get more and more blurred
Step 1 Measure the observed length of the
as magnification increased. The resolution would not
image of the chloroplast (I), in mm,
be greater.
using a ruler. The maximum length is
25 mm.

Step 2 Convert mm to μm:

The electromagnetic spectrum
25 mm = 25 × 1000 μm = 25 000 μm How is resolution linked with the nature of light? One
of the properties of light is that it travels in waves. The
Step 3 Use the equation to calculate the lengths of the waves of visible light vary, ranging from
actual length: about 400 nm to about 700 nm. The human eye can
distinguish between these different wavelengths, and
image size, l
actual size, A = in the brain the differences are converted to colour
magnification, M differences. Waves that are 400 nm in length are seen as
25 000 µm violet. Waves that are 700 nm in length are seen
=
5600 as red.
= 4.5 µm (to one Visible light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
decimal place) The range of different wavelengths of electromagnetic
radiation is called the electromagnetic spectrum. Visible
light is only one part of this spectrum. Figure 1.13
shows some of the parts of the electromagnetic
1.5 Electron microscopy spectrum. The longer the waves, the lower their
frequency. (All the waves travel at the same speed, so
Before studying what cells look like with an electron imagine them passing a post: shorter waves pass at
microscope, you need to understand the difference higher frequency.) In theory, there is no limit to how
between magnification and resolution. short or how long the waves can be. Wavelength changes
with energy: the greater the energy, the shorter the
wavelength.
Magnification and resolution
Look again at Figure 1.11. Figure 1.11a is a light KEY WORD
micrograph. Figure 1.11b is an electron micrograph.
Both micrographs are of the same cells and both have resolution: the ability to distinguish between
the same magnification. However, you can see that two objects very close together; the higher the
Figure 1.11b, the electron micrograph, is much clearer. resolution of an image, the greater the detail that
This is because it has greater resolution. Resolution can be seen
can be defined as the ability to distinguish between two

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 1 Cell structure

X-rays infrared
microwaves
gamma rays UV radio and TV waves

5 7 9 11 13
0.1 nm 10 nm 1000 nm 10 nm 10 nm 10 nm 10 nm 10 nm

visible light

400 nm 500 nm 600 nm 700 nm

violet green orange red

Figure 1.13: Diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum. The numbers indicate the wavelengths of the different types of
electromagnetic radiation. Note the waves vary from very short to very long. Visible light is part of the spectrum. The double-
headed arrow labelled UV is ultraviolet light.

wavelength stained mitochondrion The general rule when viewing specimens is that the
400 nm of diameter 1000 nm limit of resolution is about one half the wavelength
interferes with light waves of the radiation used to view the specimen. In other
words, if an object is any smaller than half the
wavelength of the radiation used to view it, it cannot
be seen separately from nearby objects. This means
that the best resolution that can be obtained using a
microscope that uses visible light (a light microscope)
is 200 nm, since the shortest wavelength of visible light
is 400 nm (violet light). Ribosomes are approximately
25 nm in diameter and can therefore never be seen
using a light microscope.
If an object is transparent, it will allow light waves to
pass through it and therefore will still not be visible. This
is why many biological structures have to be stained
before they can be seen.

Question
stained ribosomes of diameter 25 nm 4 Explain why ribosomes are not visible using a light
do not interfere with light waves microscope.

Figure 1.14: A mitochondrion and some ribosomes in the

path of light waves of 400 nm length. The electron microscope
So how can we look at things smaller than 200 nm?
Now look at Figure 1.14. It shows a mitochondrion The only solution to this problem is to use radiation
and some very small cell organelles called ribosomes. of a shorter wavelength than visible light. If you study
It also shows some wavy blue lines that represent light Figure 1.13, you will see that ultraviolet light or X-rays
of 400 nm wavelength. This is the shortest visible look like possible candidates. A much better solution,
wavelength. The mitochondrion is large enough to though, is to use electrons. Electrons are negatively
interfere with the light waves. However, the ribosomes charged particles which orbit the nucleus of an atom.
are far too small to have any effect on the light waves. When a metal becomes very hot, some of its electrons

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

gain so much energy that they escape from their orbits,

similar to a rocket escaping from Earth’s gravity. Free
Viewing specimens with the
electrons behave like electromagnetic radiation. They
have a very short wavelength: the greater the energy,
electron microscope
the shorter the wavelength. Electrons are a very suitable Figure 1.16 shows how a TEM works and Figure 1.17
form of radiation for microscopy for two major reasons. shows one in use.
First, their wavelength is extremely short (at least as
short as that of X-rays). Second, unlike X-rays, they are electron gun and anode –
negatively charged, so they can be focused easily using produce a beam of electrons
electromagnets (a magnet can be made to alter the path of
the beam, the equivalent of a glass lens bending light). electron beam
Using an electron microscope, a resolution of 0.5 nm can
vacuum
be obtained, 400 times better than a light microscope.

pathway of electrons
Transmission and scanning
condenser electromagnetic
electron microscopes lens – directs the electron beam
Two types of electron microscope are now in common onto the specimen
use. The transmission electron microscope (TEM) was
the type originally developed. The beam of electrons is
passed through the specimen before being viewed. Only specimen is placed on a
those electrons that are transmitted (pass through the grid
specimen) are seen. This allows us to see thin sections of
specimens, and thus to see inside cells. In the scanning
electron microscope (SEM), the electron beam is used
objective electromagnetic
to scan the surfaces of structures and only the reflected lens – produces an image
beam is observed.
An example of a scanning electron micrograph is shown
in Figure 1.15. The advantage of this microscope is that
surface structures can be seen. Because much of the projector electromagnetic
specimen is in focus at the same time, a three-dimensional lenses – focus the magnified
appearance is achieved. A disadvantage of the SEM is image onto the screen
that it cannot achieve the same resolution as a TEM.
Using an SEM, resolution is between 3 nm and 20 nm.

screen or photographic film

or sensor – shows the image
of the specimen

Figure 1.16: How a TEM works.

Note: the structure of an electron microscope is

extension content, and is not part of the syllabus.
Figure 1.15: Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of a
tardigrade. Tardigrades or water bears, are about 0.5 mm It is not possible to see an electron beam, so to make
long, with four pairs of legs. They are common in soil and the image visible the electron beam has to be projected
can survive extreme environmental conditions (×86). onto a fluorescent screen. The areas hit by electrons

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 1 Cell structure

The electron beam, and therefore the specimen and

the fluorescent screen, must be in a vacuum. If the
electrons collided with air molecules, they would scatter,
making it impossible to achieve a sharp picture. Also,
water boils at room temperature in a vacuum, so all
specimens must be dehydrated before being placed in
the microscope. This means that only dead material or
non-living can be examined. Great efforts are therefore
made to try to preserve material in a life-like state when
preparing it for electron microscopy.

1.6 Plant and animal cells

as seen with an electron
Figure 1.17: A TEM in use.
microscope
The fine (detailed) structure of a cell as revealed by the
shine brightly, giving overall a black and white picture. electron microscope is called ultrastructure and is shown
The stains used to improve the contrast of biological in Figures 1.18–1.21.
specimens for electron microscopy contain heavy metal
atoms, which stop the passage of electrons. The resulting
picture is like an X-ray photograph, with the more
densely stained parts of the specimen appearing blacker.
‘False-colour’ images can be created by colouring the
standard black and white image using a computer.

Question
5 Copy and complete Table 1.2, which compares light microscopes with electron microscopes. Some boxes have been
filled in for you.

Feature Light microscope Electron microscope

source of radiation
wavelength of radiation used about 0.005 nm
maximum resolution 0.5 nm in practice
lenses glass
specimen non-living or dead
stains coloured dyes
image coloured

Table 1.2: Comparison of light microscopes and electron microscopes.

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

Golgi apparatus

cell surface
membrane

lysosome

boundary between
mitochondria the two cells

nucleolus

endoplasmic
reticulum
nucleus

glycogen granules

microvillus
chromatin

nuclear envelope
ribosomes

Figure 1.18: Parts of two representative animal cells as seen with a TEM. The cells are liver cells from a rat (×9600). The
nucleus is clearly visible in one of the cells. The boundary between the two cells is difficult to see because the cell surface
membranes are so thin.

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 1 Cell structure

cell surface membrane microvilli

Golgi vesicle
centrosome with two centrioles close to the
nucleus and at right angles to each other Golgi apparatus

nuclear envelope microtubules radiating

(two membranes) from centrosome
nucleolus
nucleus
chromatin ribosomes

nuclear pore
lysosome

rough endoplasmic reticulum

smooth endoplasmic reticulum
cytoplasm

mitochondrion
Figure 1.19: Ultrastructure of a typical animal cell as seen with an electron microscope. This drawing is based on many
micrographs of animal cells. In reality, the endoplasmic reticulum is more extensive than shown here, and free ribosomes may
be more extensive. Glycogen granules are sometimes present in the cytoplasm.

Question
6 Compare Figure 1.19 with Figure 1.4. Name the structures in an animal cell that can be seen with the electron
microscope but not with the light microscope.

cell surface ribosome

membrane
vacuole
nuclear envelope tonoplast
chromatin

nucleolus chloroplast
nuclear pore
cell wall
endoplasmic
reticulum
mitochondrion
starch grain
Golgi apparatus

Figure 1.20: Representative plant cells as seen with a TEM. The cells are palisade cells from a soya bean leaf. The boundaries
between the cells can clearly be seen due to the presence of cell walls (×5600).

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

Question
7 Compare Figure 1.21 with Figure 1.5. Name the structures in a plant cell that can be seen with the electron
microscope but not with the light microscope.

middle lamella chloroplast

plasmodesma cytoplasm
Golgi apparatus

Golgi vesicle
cell walls of neighbouring cells

tonoplast
vacuole
cell sap

mitochondrion

smooth ER

cell surface membrane

(pressed against cell wall)

ribosomes

nuclear pore

nucleolus envelope grana

nucleus chromatin chloroplast

nuclear envelope
(two membranes) rough ER microtubule

Figure 1.21: Ultrastructure of a typical plant cell as seen with the electron microscope. This drawing is based on many
micrographs of plant cells. In reality, the ER is more extensive than shown. Free ribosomes may also be more extensive.

Cell surface membrane cell surface membrane appears

as two dark lines (shown by the
The cell surface membrane is extremely thin (about label lines) with a pale interior
7 nm). However, at very high magnifications it can be
seen to have three layers – two dark (heavily stained) outside of cell
layers surrounding a narrow, pale interior (Figure 1.22).
The membrane is partially permeable and controls inside of cell (cytoplasm)
exchange between the cell and its environment.
Membrane structure is discussed further in Chapter 4.
Figure 1.22: Cell surface membrane (×250 000). At this
magnification the membrane appears as two dark lines at
the edge of the cell.

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 1 Cell structure

Microvilli Question
Microvilli (singular: microvillus) are finger-like extensions 8 a Using the magnification given, determine
of the cell surface membrane. They are typical of certain the actual maximum diameter of the nucleus
animal cells, such as epithelial cells. Epithelial cells cover shown in Figure 1.23.
the surfaces of structures. The microvilli greatly increase b The diameter you have calculated for the
the surface area of the cell surface membrane, as shown in nucleus shown in Figure 1.23 is not necessarily
Figure 1.19. This is useful, for example, for reabsorption the maximum diameter of this nucleus. Explain
in the proximal convoluted tubules of the kidney and for why this is the case.
absorption of digested food into cells lining the gut.

IMPORTANT
KEY WORDS
Use modelling clay to make a spherical shape
microvilli (singular: microvillus): small, finger-like (a ball), like a nucleus. Try cutting it into two at
extensions of a cell which increase the surface different places and looking at the sizes of the cut
area of the cell for more efficient absorption surfaces. This represents the process of sectioning
or secretion material for examination using a microscope.

Nucleus
The nucleus (Figure 1.23) is the largest cell organelle.
mitochondrion

endoplasmic
reticulum

nuclear pore
nuclear envelope

nucleolus

nucleus

chromatin

Figure 1.23: Transmission electron micrograph (TEM) of a nucleus. This is the nucleus of a cell from the pancreas of a bat
(×11000). The circular nucleus is surrounded by a double-layered nuclear envelope containing nuclear pores. The nucleolus is
more darkly stained. Rough ER is visible in the surrounding cytoplasm.

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

The nuclear envelope when, as during nuclear division, ribosome synthesis

ceases. The nucleolus as a structure then disappears.
The nucleus is surrounded by two membranes, forming
the nuclear envelope. The outer membrane of the nuclear
envelope is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum Endoplasmic reticulum
(Figures 1.19 and 1.21).
When cells were first seen with the electron microscope,
The nuclear envelope has many small pores called biologists were amazed to see so much detailed structure.
nuclear pores. These allow and control exchange between The existence of much of this had not been suspected.
the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Examples of substances This was particularly true of the endoplasmic reticulum
leaving the nucleus through the pores are messenger (ER) (Figures 1.23, 1.24 and 1.28). The membranes of
RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomes the ER form flattened compartments called sacs or
for protein synthesis. Examples of substances entering
through the nuclear pores are proteins (to help make
ribosomes), nucleotides, ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
and some hormones such as thyroid hormone T3.

Chromosomes and chromatin

The nucleus contains the chromosomes. Chromosomes
contain DNA, the genetic material. DNA is organised
into functional units called genes. Genes control the
activities of the cell and inheritance; thus the nucleus
controls the cell’s activities.
rough ER
The DNA molecules are so long (a human cell contains
about two metres of DNA) that they have to be folded
up into a more compact shape to prevent the strands
becoming tangled. This is achieved by combining with free
proteins, particularly with proteins known as histones. ribosomes
The combination of DNA and proteins is known as
chromatin. Chromatin also contains some RNA. Thus,
chromosomes are made of chromatin (Chapter 5,
Section 5.2, Chromosomes).
Figure 1.24: TEM of rough ER covered with ribosomes
When a cell is about to divide, the nucleus divides first so that (black dots) (×17 000). Some free ribosomes can also be
each new cell will have its own nucleus (Chapters 5 and 16). seen in the cytoplasm on the left.
Also within the nucleusis a structure called the nucleolus.

Nucleolus KEY WORDS

The nucleolus appears as a darkly stained, rounded nuclear envelope: the two membranes, situated
structure in the nucleus (Figure 1.23). As mentioned close together, that surround the nucleus; the
earlier, one or more may be present, although one is most envelope is perforated with nuclear pores
common. Its function is to make ribosomes using the
information in its own DNA. It contains a core of DNA nuclear pores: pores found in the nuclear envelope
from one or more chromosomes which contain the genes which control the exchange of materials, e.g.
that code for ribosomal RNA (rRNA), the form of RNA mRNA, between the nucleus and the cytoplasm
used in the manufacture of ribosomes. It also contains endoplasmic reticulum (ER): a network of
genes for making tRNA. Around the core are less dense flattened sacs running through the cytoplasm of
regions where the ribosomal subunits are assembled, eukaryotic cells; molecules, particularly proteins,
combining the rRNA with ribosomal proteins imported can be transported through the cell inside the
from the cytoplasm. The more ribosomes a cell makes, sacs separate from the rest of the cytoplasm; ER
the larger its nucleolus. is continuous with the outer membrane of the
The different parts of the nucleolus only come together nuclear envelope
during the manufacture of ribosomes. They separate

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 1 Cell structure

cisternae. Processes can take place inside the cisternae mRNA, tRNA, amino acids and regulatory proteins,
separated from the cytoplasm. Molecules, particularly to gather together in one place (Chapter 6, Section 6.5,
proteins, can be transported through the ER separate Protein synthesis).
from the rest of the cytoplasm. The ER is continuous
with the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope
(Figures 1.19 and 1.21).

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

There are two types of ER: rough ER (RER) and
smooth ER (SER). RER is so called because it is
covered with many tiny organelles called ribosomes
(described later). These are just visible as black dots
in Figures 1.23 and 1.24. Ribosomes are the sites of
protein synthesis (Chapter 6). They can be found free in
the cytoplasm as well as on the RER.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

SER has a smooth appearance because it lacks Figure 1.25: Structure of the human 80S ribosome.
ribosomes. It has a completely different function to
RER. It makes lipids and steroids, such as cholesterol
and the reproductive hormones oestrogen and
testosterone. SER is also a major storage site for calcium Golgi apparatus
ions. This explains why it is abundant in muscle cells,
The Golgi apparatus is a stack of flattened sacs called
where calcium ions are involved in muscle contraction
cisternae (Figure 1.26). More than one Golgi apparatus
(Chapter 15, Section 15.3, Muscle contraction). In the
may be present in a cell. The stack is constantly being
liver, SER is involved in drug metabolism.
formed at one end from vesicles which bud off from
the ER, and are broken down again at the other end to
form Golgi vesicles. The stack of sacs together with the
Ribosomes associated vesicles is referred to as the Golgi apparatus
or Golgi complex.
Ribosomes are very small and are not visible with a
light microscope. At very high magnifications using
an electron microscope they can be seen to consist KEY WORDS
of two subunits: a large and a small subunit. The
ribosome: a tiny organelle found in large
sizes of structures this small are often quoted in S
numbers in all cells; prokaryotic ribosomes
units (Svedberg units). S units are a measure of how
are about 20 nm in diameter while eukaryotic
rapidly substances sediment in a high speed centrifuge
ribosomes are about 25 nm in diameter
(an ultracentrifuge). The faster they sediment, the
higher the S number. Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S Golgi apparatus (Golgi body, Golgi complex):
ribosomes. The ribosomes of prokaryotes are 70S an organelle found in eukaryotic cells; the Golgi
ribosomes, so are slightly smaller. Mitochondria and apparatus consists of a stack of flattened sacs,
chloroplasts contain 70S ribosomes, revealing their constantly forming at one end and breaking up
prokaryotic origins (see the sections on mitochondria into Golgi vesicles at the other end
and chloroplasts).
Golgi vesicles: carry their contents to other parts
Ribosomes are made of roughly equal amounts by of the cell, often to the cell surface membrane
mass of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein. Their for secretion; the Golgi apparatus chemically
three-dimensional structure has now been worked modifies the molecules it transports, e.g. sugars
out (Figure 1.25). Ribosomes allow all the interacting may be added to proteins to make glycoproteins
molecules involved in protein synthesis, such as

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

The Golgi apparatus collects and processes molecules,

particularly proteins from the RER. It contains
Lysosomes
hundreds of enzymes for this purpose. After processing, Lysosomes are simple sacs, surrounded by a single
the molecules can be transported in Golgi vesicles to membrane. In animal cells they are usually 0.1–0.5 µm
other parts of the cell or out of the cell. Releasing in diameter (Figure 1.27). In plant cells the large central
molecules from the cell is called secretion and the vacuole may act as a lysosome, although lysosomes
pathway followed by the molecules is called the secretory similar to those in animal cells are also seen in the
pathway. These are some examples of the functions of cytoplasm.
the Golgi apparatus
KEY WORD
lysosome: a spherical organelle found in
eukaryotic cells; it contains digestive (hydrolytic)
enzymes and has a variety of destructive
functions, such as removal of old cell organelles

Figure 1.26: TEM of a Golgi apparatus. A central stack of

saucer-shaped sacs can be seen budding off small Golgi
vesicles (green). These may form secretory vesicles whose
contents can be released at the cell surface by exocytosis
(Chapter 4). Figure 1.27: Lysosomes (orange) in a mouse kidney cell
(×55 000). They contain cell structures in the process of
• Golgi vesicles are used to make lysosomes. digestion. Cytoplasm is coloured blue here.

• Sugars are added to proteins to make molecules

known as glycoproteins. Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes. The enzymes
are called hydrolases because they carry out hydrolysis
• Sugars are added to lipids to make glycolipids. reactions. These enzymes must be kept separate from
Glycoproteins and glycolipids are important the rest of the cell to prevent damage. Lysosomes are
components of membranes (Chapter 4, Section responsible for the breakdown (digestion) of unwanted
4.2, Structure of membranes) and are important substances and structures such as old organelles or
molecules in cell signalling (Chapter 4, Section 4.4, even whole cells. Hydrolysis works fastest in an acid
Cell signalling). environment so the contents of lysosomes are acidic,
• During plant cell division, Golgi enzymes are pH 4–5 compared with 6.5–7.0 in the surrounding
involved in the synthesis of new cell walls. cytoplasm. Among the 60+ enzymes contained in
lysosomes are proteases, lipases and nucleases which
• In the gut and the gas exchange system, cells break down proteins, lipids and nucleic acids respectively.
called goblet cells release a substance called mucin The enzymes are synthesised on RER and delivered to
from the Golgi apparatus (Chapter 9, Section 9.4, lysosomes via the Golgi apparatus.
Warming and cleaning the air). Mucin is one of the
main components of mucus.

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 1 Cell structure

The activities of lysosomes can be split into the four

categories discussed below. RER

Getting rid of unwanted cell components

Lysosomes can engulf and destroy unwanted cell mitochondrial
components, such as molecules or organelles, that are envelope
located inside the cell.
cristae
Endocytosis matrix
Endocytosis is described in more detail in nuclear pore
Chapter 4 (Section 4.5, Movement of substances across nucleus
membranes). Material may be taken into the cell by
endocytosis, for example when white blood cells engulf Figure 1.28: Mitochondrion (orange) with its double
bacteria. Lysosomes may fuse with the endocytic membrane (envelope); the inner membrane is folded to
vacuoles formed and release their enzymes to digest form cristae (×20 000). Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic
the contents. cell respiration. Note also the RER.

Exocytosis The number of mitochondria in a cell is very variable.

Lysosomal enzymes may be released from the cell for As they are responsible for aerobic respiration, it is not
extracellular digestion. An example is the replacement surprising that cells with a high demand for energy,
of cartilage by bone during development. The heads of such as liver and muscle cells, contain large numbers of
sperms contain a special lysosome, the acrosome, for mitochondria. A liver cell may contain as many as 2000
digesting a path through the layers of cells surrounding mitochondria. If you exercise regularly, your muscles will
the egg just before fertilisation. make more mitochondria.

Self-digestion Functions of mitochondria and the

The contents of lysosomes are sometimes released role of ATP
into the cytoplasm. This results in the whole cell being
The main function of mitochondria is to carry out
digested (a process called autolysis). This may be part
aerobic respiration, although they do have other
of normal development, as when a tadpole tail is
functions, such as the synthesis of lipids. During
reabsorbed during metamorphosis or when a uterus is
respiration, a series of reactions takes place in which
restored to its normal size after pregnancy. It also occurs
energy is released from energy-rich molecules such as
after the death of an individual as membranes lose their
sugars and fats. Most of the energy is transferred to
partial permeability.
molecules of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). This is the
energy-carrying molecule found in all living cells. It is
known as the universal energy carrier.
Mitochondria
Structure KEY WORDS
The structure of the mitochondrion (plural: cristae (singular: crista): folds of the inner
mitochondria) as seen with the electron microscope is membrane of the mitochondrial envelope on
visible in Figures 1.18, 1.28 and 12.10. Mitochondria which are found stalked particles of ATP synthase
are usually about 1 μm in diameter and can be various and electron transport chains associated with
shapes, often sausage-shaped as in Figure 1.28. They aerobic respiration
are surrounded by two membranes (an envelope).
The inner membrane is folded to form finger-like ATP (adenosine triphosphate): the molecule
cristae (singular: crista) which project into the interior that is the universal energy currency in all living
of the mitochondrion which is called the matrix. cells; the purpose of respiration is to make ATP
The space between the two membranes is called the
intermembrane space.

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The reactions of respiration take place in solution in the Microtubules are made of a protein called tubulin.
matrix and in the inner membrane (cristae). The matrix Tubulin has two forms, α-tubulin (alpha-tubulin) and
contains enzymes in solution, including those of the β-tubulin (beta-tubulin). α- and β-tubulin molecules
Krebs cycle. Electron carriers are found in the cristae. combine to form dimers (double molecules). These
For more detail, see Chapter 12 (Section 12.2). dimers are then joined end to end to form long
‘protofilaments’. This is an example of polymerisation,
Once made, ATP leaves the mitochondrion and, as
the process by which giant molecules are made by
it is a small, soluble molecule, it can spread rapidly
joining together many identical subunits. Thirteen
to all parts of the cell where energy is needed. Its
protofilaments line up alongside each other in a ring to
energy is released by breaking the molecule down
form a cylinder with a hollow centre. This cylinder is
to ADP (adenosine diphosphate). This is a hydrolysis
the microtubule. Figure 1.29a shows the helical pattern
reaction. The ADP can then be recycled in a
formed by neighbouring α- and β-tubulin molecules.
mitochondrion for conversion back to ATP during
aerobic respiration. Apart from their mechanical function of support,
microtubules have a number of other functions.
The endosymbiont theory • Secretory vesicles and other organelles and cell
components can be moved along the outside
Note: The endosymbiont theory is extension surfaces of the microtubules, forming an
content, and is not part of the syllabus. intracellular transport system, as in the movement
of Golgi vesicles during exocytosis.
In the 1960s, it was discovered that mitochondria and • During nuclear division (Chapter 5), a spindle
chloroplasts contain ribosomes which are slightly smaller made of microtubules is used for the separation of
than those in the cytoplasm and are the same size as chromatids or chromosomes.
those found in bacteria. Cytoplasmic ribosomes are 80S,
while those of bacteria, mitochondria and chloroplasts • Microtubules form part of the structure of
are 70S. It was also discovered in the 1960s that centrioles.
mitochondria and chloroplasts contain small, circular • Microtubules form an essential part of the
DNA molecules, also like those found in bacteria. It was mechanism involved in the beating movements of
later proved that mitochondria and chloroplasts are, in cilia and flagella.
effect, ancient bacteria which now live inside the larger
cells of animals and plants (see ‘Thinking outside the The assembly of microtubules from tubulin molecules is
box’ at the beginning of this chapter). This is known controlled by special locations in cells called microtubule
as the endosymbiont theory. ‘Endo’ means ‘inside’ and organising centres (MTOCs). These are discussed further in
a ‘symbiont’ is an organism which lives in a mutually the following section on centrioles. Because of their simple
beneficial relationship with another organism. The DNA construction, microtubules can be formed and broken down
and ribosomes of mitochondria and chloroplasts are still very easily at the MTOCs, according to need.
active and responsible for the coding and synthesis of
certain vital proteins, but mitochondria and chloroplasts KEY WORDS
can no longer live independently. Mitochondrial
ribosomes are just visible as tiny dark orange dots in the ADP (adenosine diphosphate): the molecule
mitochondrial matrix in Figure 1.28. that is converted to ATP by addition of
phosphate (a reaction known as phosphorylation)
during cell respiration; the enzyme responsible is
Microtubules and microtubule ATP synthase; the reaction requires energy
microtubules: tiny tubes made of a protein
organising centres (MTOCs) called tubulin and found in most eukaryotic cells;
Microtubules are long, rigid, hollow tubes found in microtubules have a large variety of functions,
the cytoplasm. They are very small, about 25 nm in including cell support and determining cell
diameter. Together with actin filaments and intermediate shape; the ‘spindle’ on which chromatids and
filaments (not discussed in this book), they make up the chromosomes separate during nuclear division is
cytoskeleton, an essential structural component of cells made of microtubules
which helps to determine cell shape.

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 1 Cell structure

a dimer b

5 nm

25 nm

dimers can reversibly appearance in

attach to a microtubule cross section

The dimers have a

The dimers form 13 protofilaments
helical arrangement.
around a hollow core.

Figure 1.29: a The structure of a microtubule and b the arrangement of microtubules in two cells. The microtubules are
coloured yellow.

Centrioles and centrosomes They lie close together and at right angles to each other
in a region known as the centrosome. Centrioles and the
Note: Centrosomes are extension content, and centrosome are absent from most plant cells.
are not part of the syllabus. A centriole is a hollow cylinder about 500 nm long, formed
from a ring of short microtubules. Each centriole contains
The extra resolution of the electron microscope reveals nine triplets of microtubules (Figures 1.30 and 1.31).
that just outside the nucleus of animal cells there are Until recently, it was believed that centrioles acted as
really two centrioles and not one as it appears under MTOCs for the assembly of the microtubules that make
the light microscope (compare Figures 1.4 and 1.19). up the spindle during nuclear division (Chapter 5). It is
now known that this is done by the centrosome, but does
triplet of microtubules (one not involve the centrioles. However, centrioles are needed
complete microtubule and for the production of cilia. Centrioles are found at the
two partial microtubules) bases of cilia and flagella, where they are known as basal
bodies. The centrioles act as MTOCs. The microtubules
that extend from the basal bodies into the cilia and
500 nm flagella are essential for the beating movements of these
organelles.

KEY WORDS
centriole: one of two small, cylindrical structures,
made from microtubules, found just outside the
nucleus in animal cells, in a region known as the
200 nm centrosome; they are also found at the bases of
cilia and flagella
Figure 1.30: The structure of a centriole. It consists of nine
centrosome: the main microtubule organising
groups of microtubules. Each group is made up of three
centre (MTOC) in animal cells
microtubules, a triplet.

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Cilia and flagella

Cilia (singular: cilium) and flagella (singular: flagellum)
have identical structures. They are whip-like, beating
extensions of many eukaryotic cells. Each is surrounded
by an extension of the cell surface membrane. They
were given different names before their structures were
discovered: flagella are long and found usually one or
two per cell, whereas cilia are short and often numerous.

Structure
Cilia and flagella are extremely complicated structures,
Figure 1.31: Centrioles in transverse and longitudinal composed of over 600 different polypeptides. This
section (TS and LS) (×86 000). The one on the left is seen in complexity results in very fine control of how they beat.
TS and clearly shows the nine triplets of microtubules which The structure of a cilium is shown in Figure 1.32.
make up the structure. Cilia have two central microtubules and a ring of nine
microtubule doublets (MTDs) around the outside.
This is referred to as a ‘9 + 2’ structure. Each MTD
KEY WORDS contains an A and a B microtubule (Figure 1.32a).
The wall of the A microtubule is a complete ring of
cilia (singular: cilium): whip-like structures 13 protofilaments and the B microtubule attached
projecting from the surface of many animal cells is an incomplete ring with only 10 protofilaments
and the cells of many unicellular organisms; they (see Figure 1.32a). Figure 1.32a shows that each A
beat, causing locomotion or the movement of microtubule has inner and outer arms. These are
fluid across the cell surface made of the protein dynein. They connect with the B
flagella (singular: flagellum): whip-like structures microtubules of neighbouring MTDs during beating. If
projecting from the surface of some animal cells you imagine the microtubule in three dimensions, there
and the cells of many unicellular organisms; they are two rows of several hundred dynein arms along the
beat, causing locomotion or the movement of outside of each A microtubule. The whole cylindrical
fluid across the cell surface; they are identical in structure inside the cell surface membrane is called the
structure to cilia, but longer axoneme.

b
Note: the structure of flagella is extension
content, and not part of the syllabus. cell surface membrane

a
9+2
cell surface membrane cilium
outer arm

inner arm

2 singlet microtubules

B B microtubule doublet
A
A microtubule microtubule basal body 9 triplets

Figure 1.32: The structure of a cilium. a A cilium seen in TS. Note the ‘9 + 2’ arrangement of microtubules.
b A cilium. TSs of the cilium (9 + 2) and basal body (9 triplets) are also shown.

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 1 Cell structure

At the base of each cilium and flagellum is a structure

called the basal body which is identical in structure to
Question
the centriole. We now know that centrioles replicate 9 In vertebrates, beating cilia are also found on the
themselves to produce these basal bodies, and that cilia epithelial cells of the oviduct (the tube connecting
and flagella grow from basal bodies. Figure 1.33 is a the ovary to the uterus). Suggest what function cilia
scanning electron micrograph of cilia in the respiratory have in the oviduct.
tract.
Chloroplasts
The structure of the chloroplast as seen with the electron
microscope is shown in Figures 1.20, 1.21 and 1.34.
You can also see a higher-resolution micrograph in
Figure 13.4. Chloroplasts tend to have an elongated
shape and a diameter of about 3–10 μm (compare 1 μm
diameter for mitochondria). Like mitochondria, they
are surrounded by two membranes, which form the
chloroplast envelope.
The main function of chloroplasts is to carry out
photosynthesis. During the first stage of photosynthesis
(the light-dependent stage), light energy is absorbed by
photosynthetic pigments, particularly chlorophyll. The
pigments are found on the membranes of the chloroplast.
The membrane system consists of fluid-filled sacs
Figure 1.33: Scanning electron micrograph of cilia in the called thylakoids, which spread out like sheets in three
respiratory tract dimensions. In places, the thylakoids form flat, disc-
like structures that stack up like piles of coins, forming
structures called grana (from their appearance in the
Beating mechanism light microscope; ‘grana’ means grains).
The beating motion of cilia and flagella is caused by the
dynein (protein) arms making contact with, and moving KEY WORD
along, neighbouring microtubules. This produces the
thylakoid: a flattened, membrane-bound, fluid-
force needed for cilia to beat. As neighbouring MTDs
filled sac which is the site of the light-dependent
slide past each other, the sliding motion is converted
reactions of photosynthesis in a chloroplast
into bending by other parts of the cilium.

Functions The second stage of photosynthesis (the light-

If the cell is attached to something so that it cannot independent stage) uses the energy and reducing power
move, fluid will move past the cell. If the cell is not generated during the first stage to convert carbon dioxide
attached, the cell will swim through the fluid. Single- into sugars. This takes place in the stroma. The sugars
celled organisms can therefore use the action of cilia and made may be stored in the form of starch grains in the
flagella for locomotion. You will easily be able to find stroma (Figures 1.20 and 13.3 and 13.4).
videos of such motion on the internet. In vertebrates, Lipid droplets are also seen in the stroma. They appear
beating cilia are found on some epithelial cells, such as as black spheres in electron micrographs (Figure 1.34).
those lining the airways (Chapter 9). Here more than They are reserves of lipid for making membranes or are
10 million cilia may be found per mm2. They maintain formed from the breakdown of internal membranes as
a flow of mucus which removes debris such as dust and the chloroplast ages.
bacteria from the respiratory tract.
Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own protein
synthesising machinery, including 70S ribosomes and

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

circular DNA. In electron micrographs, the ribosomes Some cell walls become even stronger and more rigid
can just be seen as small black dots in the stroma by the addition of lignin. Xylem vessel elements and
(Figure 13.4). sclerenchyma are examples (Chapter 7). Lignin adds
As with mitochondria, it has been shown that compressional strength to tensile strength (it prevents
chloroplasts originated as endosymbiotic bacteria, buckling). It is what gives wood (secondary xylem) its
in this case photosynthetic blue-green bacteria. The strength and is needed for support in shrubs and trees.
endosymbiont theory is discussed in more detail in the
earlier section on mitochondria. Functions
Some of the main functions of cell walls are summarised
below.
Cell walls • Mechanical strength and support for individual
Structure cells and the plant as a whole. Lignification is one
means of support. Turgid tissues are another means
The first walls formed by plant cells are known as
of support that is dependent on strong cell walls.
primary walls. They are relatively rigid. The primary wall
consists of parallel fibres of the polysaccharide cellulose • Cell walls prevent cells from bursting by osmosis
running through a matrix of other polysaccharides if cells are surrounded by a solution with a higher
such as pectins and hemicelluloses. Cellulose fibres are water potential (Chapter 2).
inelastic and have high tensile strength, meaning they
• Different orientations of the layers of cellulose
are difficult to break by pulling on each end. This makes
fibres help determine the shapes of cells as they
it difficult to stretch the wall, for example when water
grow.
enters the cell by osmosis. The structure of cellulose is
described in Chapter 2. • The system of interconnected cell walls in a plant
is called the apoplast. It is a major transport route
In most cells extra layers of cellulose are added to the for water, inorganic ions and other materials
first layer of the primary wall, forming a secondary (Chapter 7).
wall. In a given layer the cellulose fibres are parallel, but
the fibres of different layers run in different directions • Living connections through neighbouring cell walls,
forming a cross-ply structure which is stronger as a the plasmodesmata, help form another transport
result (see Figure 2.10). pathway through the plant known as the symplast
(Chapter 7).
• The cell walls of the root endodermis are
lipid impregnated with suberin, a waterproof substance
droplet that forms a barrier to the movement of water, thus
helping in the control of water and mineral ion
cell wall
uptake by the plant (Chapter 7).
granum X • Epidermal cells often have a waterproof layer of
waxy cutin, the cuticle, on their outer walls. This
helps reduce water loss by evaporation.

Vacuoles
thylakoid As we have seen, animal cell vacuoles are relatively small
and include phagocytic vacuoles, food vacuoles and
Figure 1.34: Two chloroplasts (×16 000). Thylakoids (yellow)
autophagic vacuoles.
run through the stroma (dark green) and are stacked in Unlike animal cells, plant cells typically have a large
places to form grana. Black circles among the thylakoids are central vacuole (Figure 1.20). Some examples of the
lipid droplets. See also Figures 13.3 and 13.4. Chloroplast X functions of the large central vacuole of plants are listed
is referred to in Question 3b. below. It is useful to try to remember one or two of these
examples.

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 1 Cell structure

Support • Certain alkaloids and tannins deter herbivores from

eating the plant.
The solution in the vacuole is relatively concentrated.
Water therefore enters the vacuole by osmosis, inflating • Latex, a milky fluid, can accumulate in vacuoles,
the vacuole and causing a build-up of pressure. A fully for example in rubber trees. The latex of the opium
inflated cell is described as turgid. Turgid tissues help poppy contains alkaloids such as morphine from
to support the stems of plants that lack wood (wilting which opium and heroin are obtained.
demonstrates the importance of this).
Food reserves
Lysosomal activity Food reserves, such as sucrose in sugar beet, or mineral
Plant vacuoles may contain hydrolases and act as salts, may be stored in the vacuole. Protein-storing
lysosomes. vacuoles are common in seeds.

Secondary metabolites Waste products

Plants contain a wide range of chemicals known as Waste products, such as crystals of calcium oxalate, may
secondary metabolites which, although not essential be stored in vacuoles.
for growth and development, contribute to survival
in various ways. These are often stored in vacuoles. Growth in size
Examples of their functions are:
Osmotic uptake of water into the vacuole is responsible
• Anthocyanins are pigments that are responsible for for most of the increase in volume of plant cells during
most of the red, purple, pink and blue colours of growth. The vacuole occupies up to a third of the total
flowers and fruits. They attract pollinators and seed cell volume.
dispersers.

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 1.3

Work in groups of ten. Each group should make one copy of the following table on stiff card.

START Photosynthesis occurs in this organelle

Chloroplast Chromosomes are found in this structure in eukaryotic cells
Nucleus These are found on rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Ribosomes This structure contains cellulose as a strengthening material
Cell wall Makes ribosomes
Nucleolus Site of ATP synthesis in aerobic respiration
Mitochondrion Makes lysosomes
Golgi apparatus Has a ‘9 + 2’ arrangement of microtubules
Cilium Mainly contains digestive enzymes
Lysosome END

Cut up the card so that each piece of card has one term and one description (one row of the table). There are
therefore ten cards.
Shuffle the cards and take one each. The student with the START card reads out the description and the
student who has the correct matching term reads out THE correct term from their card. They then read out the
description on their card. This continues until it reaches the END card. Your teacher will help if you get stuck.
The cards can be reshuffled and the activity repeated to see if you can do it faster the second time.

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

1.7 Bacteria Structure of bacteria

Figure 1.35 shows the structure of a typical bacterium
You will recall that there are two fundamental types
(plural: bacteria). The left side of the diagram shows the
of cell: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The plant and
structures that are always present. The right side of the
animal cells you have studied so far are eukaryotic cells.
diagram shows the structures which are sometimes found
Bacteria are prokaryotes and their cells are much simpler
in bacteria.
than those of eukaryotes. Prokaryotic cells are generally
about 1000 times smaller in volume and lack a nucleus
that is surrounded by a double membrane. Prokaryotes KEY WORD
are thought to have been the first living organisms on
bacteria (singular: bacterium): a group of single-
Earth. The earliest known fossil prokaryotes are about
celled prokaryotic microorganisms; they have a
3.5 billion years old (the Earth was formed about
number of characteristics, such as the ability to
4.5 billion years ago). Most biologists believe that
form spores, which distinguish them from the
eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes about 2 billion
other group of prokaryotes known as Archaea
years ago. There are two groups of prokaryotes, known
as Bacteria and Archaea. (The classification of living
organisms is discussed in Chapter 18.) We consider only
Bacteria in this book.

structures always structures sometimes

present present

flagellum
for locomotion;
very simple structure
cell wall
containing
murein, a capsule or slime layer
peptidoglycan additional protection

infolding of cell
cell surface surface membrane
membrane may form a
photosynthetic
membrane or carry
cytoplasm out nitrogen fixation

circular DNA plasmid

small circle of DNA;
several may
be present

ribosomes
pili
for attachment to
other cells or surfaces;
involved in sexual
reproduction

Figure 1.35: Diagram of a bacterium. Cells are generally about 1–5 µm in diameter.

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 1 Cell structure

Cell wall bacteria, for example, the infolded membrane contains

photosynthetic pigments which allow photosynthesis
Bacterial cell walls contain a strengthening material called
to take place. In some bacteria, nitrogen fixation takes
peptidoglycan. The cell wall protects the bacterium and is
place on the infolded membrane. Nitrogen fixation is
essential for its survival. It prevents the cell from swelling
the ability to convert nitrogen in the air to nitrogen-
up and bursting if water enters the cell by osmosis.
containing compounds, such as ammonia, inside the cell.
All life depends on nitrogen fixation. Eukaryotes cannot
KEY WORD carry out nitrogen fixation.
peptidoglycan: a polysaccharide combined with
amino acids; it is also known as murein; it makes Capsule
the bacterial cell wall more rigid Some bacteria are surrounded by an extra layer outside
the cell wall. This may take the form of a capsule or a
slime layer. A capsule is a definite structure, made mostly
Cell surface membrane of polysaccharides. A slime layer is more diffuse and is
Like all cells, bacterial cells are surrounded by a cell easily washed off. Both help to protect the bacterium
surface membrane. from drying out and may have other protective functions.
For example, a capsule helps protect some bacteria from
Cytoplasm antibiotics. Some capsules prevent white blood cells
known as phagocytes from engulfing disease-causing
The cytoplasm does not contain any double membrane-
bacteria.
bound organelles (such as mitochondria).

Plasmid
Circular DNA
A plasmid is a small circle of DNA separate from
The DNA molecule in bacteria is circular. It is found in
the main DNA of the cell. It contains only a few
a region called the nucleoid, which also contains proteins
genes. Many plasmids may be present in a given cell.
and small amounts of RNA. It is not surrounded by
The genes have various useful functions. Commonly,
a double membrane, unlike the nucleus of eukaryotes.
plasmids contain genes that give resistance to particular
There may be more than one copy of the DNA molecule
antibiotics, such as penicillin. Plasmids can copy
in a given cell.
themselves independently of the chromosomal DNA
and can spread rapidly from one bacterium to another.
Ribosomes Plasmid DNA is not associated with protein and is
Bacterial ribosomes are 70S ribosomes, slightly smaller referred to as ‘naked’ DNA.
than the 80S ribosomes of eukaryotes.
KEY WORD
Flagellum plasmid: a small circular piece of DNA in a
Some bacteria are able to swim because they have one bacterium (not its main chromosome); plasmids
or more flagella. Bacterial flagella have a much simpler often contain genes that provide resistance to
structure than eukaryotic flagella. The bacterial flagellum antibiotics
is a simple hollow cylinder made of identical protein
molecules. It is a rigid structure, so it does not bend, unlike
the flagella in eukaryotes. It is wave-shaped and works by Pili (singular: pilus)
rotating at its base like a propeller to push the bacterium Pili are fine protein rods. They vary in length and
through its liquid environment. As a result, the bacterium stiffness. One to several hundred may be present on the
moves forward with a corkscrew-shaped motion. outside of the cell. They are used for attachment and
interactions with other cells or surfaces. They allow
Infolding of cell surface membrane the transfer of genes, including plasmids, from one
In some bacteria, the cell surface membrane folds bacterium to another during conjugation.
into the cell forming an extra surface on which certain
biochemical reactions can take place. In blue–green

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

1.8 Comparing prokaryotic cells with eukaryotic cells

Table 1.3 compares prokaryotic cells with eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes are thought to have evolved Eukaryotes are thought to have evolved about 1.5 billion
about 3.5 billion years ago. years ago.
Their typical diameter is 1–5 μm. Cells are up to 40 μm diameter and up to 1000 times the volume
of prokaryotic cells.
DNA is circular and free in the cytoplasm; it DNA is not circular and is contained in a nucleus. The nucleus is
is not surrounded by a double membrane. surrounded by a double membrane (the nuclear envelope).
70S ribosomes are present (smaller than 80S ribosomes are present (larger than those of prokaryotes).
those of eukaryotes).
Very few types of cell organelle are Many types of cell organelle are present.
present. No separate membrane-bound
organelles are present. • Some organelles are surrounded by a single membrane
(e.g. lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, ER).
• Some are surrounded by an envelope of two membranes
(e.g. nucleus, mitochondrion, chloroplast).
• Some have no membrane (e.g. ribosomes, centrioles,
microtubules).
The cell wall contains peptidoglycan (a A cell wall is sometimes present (e.g. in plants and fungi); it
polysaccharide combined with amino contains cellulose or lignin in plants, and chitin (a nitrogen-
acids). containing polysaccharide similar to cellulose) in fungi.
Flagella are simple and lack microtubules; Flagella (and cilia) are complex with a ‘9 + 2’
they project outside the cell surface arrangement of microtubules; they are surrounded by the cell
membrane so they are extracellular surface membrane so they are intracellular (inside the cell).
(outside the cell).
Cell division occurs by binary fission (the Cell division takes place by mitosis or meiosis and involves a
cell splits into two); it does not involve a spindle (see Chapter 6).
spindle (see Chapter 6).
Some carry out nitrogen fixation. None carries out nitrogen fixation.

Table 1.3: Comparing prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

Question tiny ‘particles’ which are much smaller than bacteria and
are on the boundary between what we think of as living
10 List the structural features that prokaryotic and and non-living. Unlike prokaryotes and eukaryotes,
eukaryotic cells have in common. Briefly explain why viruses do not have a cell structure. In other words, they
each of the structures you have listed is essential.
KEY WORD

1.9 Viruses virus: a very small (20–300 nm) infectious particle

which can replicate only inside living cells; it
In 1852, a Russian scientist discovered that certain consists of a molecule of DNA or RNA (the
diseases could be transmitted by agents that, unlike genome) surrounded by a protein coat; an outer
bacteria, could pass through very fine filters. This was lipid envelope may also be present
the first evidence for the existence of viruses. Viruses are

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 1 Cell structure

are not surrounded by a partially permeable membrane

containing cytoplasm with ribosomes. They are much KEY WORD
simpler in structure. They consist only of the following: phospholipid: a lipid to which phosphate is
• a self-replicating molecule of DNA or RNA (the added; the molecule is made up of a glycerol
genome or complete genetic instructions) molecule, two fatty acids and a phosphate
• a protective coat of protein molecules called a capsid group; a double layer (a bilayer) of phospholipids
forms the basic structure of all cell membranes
• (some viruses only) a membrane-like outer layer,
called the envelope, that is made of phospholipids.
(The structure of phospholipids is described in Viruses range in size from about 20 nm to 300 nm (about
Chapter 2.) Proteins may project from the envelope. 50 times smaller on average than bacteria).
Figure 1.36 shows the structure of a virus with an All viruses are parasitic because they can only reproduce
envelope. Viruses typically have a very symmetrical shape. by infecting and taking over living cells. The virus DNA or
The protein coat (or capsid) is made up of separate RNA takes over the protein synthesising machinery of the
protein molecules, each of which is called a capsomere. host cell, which then helps to make new virus particles.
a b c Zika virus

envelope protein
envelope
capsid

DNA or RNA genome

Figure 1.36: a The structure of a virus with an envelope; b model of a Zika virus. The virus is an RNA virus. Its capsid has
an outer envelope; c electron micrograph of a cell infected by Zika virus. The virus particles are the darkly stained roughly
spherical structures. Each virus particle is about 40 nm in diameter.

REFLECTION
Think about everything you know about cells. What being able to adapt the way you work? If not, what
answers would you give to the following questions? particular concerns do you have?
• What is a cell? You have studied cells in Chapter 1 and learnt a lot
• Why are all living things made of cells? about their structure and function. The Reflection
activity gives you a chance to use this information to
Look back at the differences between eukaryotic think again about cells from a slightly different point
and prokaryotic cells. of view.
• Write down a list of criteria to compare the How did the Reflection activity improve your
success of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. understanding of what you have studied in Chapter 1?
• Suggest why trying to compare the success
Final reflection
of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells may be a
meaningless exercise. (Tip: think about the Discuss with a friend which, if any, parts of
meaning of the word ‘success’.) Chapter 1 you need to:
Personal reflection questions • read through again to make sure you really
understand
Changing from studying at GCSE to studying at
AS Level is a big jump. Has anything surprised • seek more guidance on, even after going over
you about the change? Are you confident about it again.

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

SUMMARY

The basic unit of life is the cell. The simplest cells are prokaryotic cells, which are thought to have evolved
before, and given rise to, the much more complex and much larger eukaryotic cells.
Cells can be seen clearly only with the aid of microscopes. The light microscope uses light as a source of
radiation, whereas the electron microscope uses electrons. The electron microscope has greater resolution
(allows more detail to be seen) than the light microscope because electrons have a shorter wavelength than light.
With a light microscope, cells may be measured using an eyepiece graticule and a stage micrometer. Using the
I
formula A = the actual size of an object (A) or its magnification (M) can be found if its observed (image)
M
size (I) is measured and A or M, as appropriate, is known.
All cells are surrounded by a partially permeable cell surface membrane that controls exchange between the cell
and its environment. All cells contain genetic material in the form of DNA, and ribosomes for protein synthesis.
All eukaryotic cells possess a nucleus containing DNA. The DNA is linear (not circular) and bound to proteins
and RNA to form chromatin.
The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells contains many organelles, some of which are surrounded by one or two
membranes. Organelles of eukaryotic cells include endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 80S ribosomes, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes and mitochondria. Animal cells also contain a centrosome and centrioles and may
contain cilia. Plant cells have a cell wall containing cellulose. They may contain chloroplasts and often have a
large central vacuole.
Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus and have smaller (70S) ribosomes than eukaryotic cells. They also lack
membrane-bound organelles. Their DNA is circular and lies free in the cytoplasm.
Viruses do not have a cellular structure. They are extremely small and simple. They consist of a molecule of DNA or
RNA, a protein coat and sometimes an outer envelope.

EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
1 Which one of the following cell structures can be seen with a light microscope?
A mitochondrion C rough ER
B ribosome D smooth ER [1]
2 What property of electrons allows high resolution to be achieved
by electron microscopes?
a Electrons are negatively charged.
b Electrons can be focused using electromagnets.
c Electrons have a very short wavelength.
d Electrons travel at the speed of light. [1]
3 Which one of the following structures is found in animal cells but
not in plant cells?
A cell surface membrane
B centriole
C chloroplast
D Golgi apparatus [1]

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 1 Cell structure

CONTINUED
4 List ten structures you could find in an electron micrograph of an
animal cell which would be absent from the cell of a bacterium. [10]
5 Distinguish between the following pairs of terms:
a magnification and resolution [3]
b light microscope and electron microscope [2]
c nucleus and nucleolus [4]
d chromatin and chromosome [3]
e membrane and envelope [3]
f smooth ER and rough ER [4]
g prokaryote and eukaryote [4]
h cell wall and cell surface membrane [4]
i capsid and cell wall [4]
j capsid and capsomere [3]
[Total: 34]
6 List:
a three organelles each lacking a boundary membrane [3]
b three organelles each surrounded by a single membrane [3]
c three organelles each surrounded by two membranes (an envelope). [3]
[Total: 9]
7 Identify each cell structure or organelle from its description below.
COMMAND WORD
a manufactures lysosomes
b manufactures ribosomes Identify: name /
c site of protein synthesis select / recognise.
d can bud off vesicles which form the Golgi apparatus
e can transport newly synthesised protein round the cell
f manufactures ATP in animal and plant cells
g controls the activity of the cell because it contains the DNA
h carries out photosynthesis
i can act as a starting point for the growth of spindle microtubules during
cell division
j contains chromatin
k partially permeable barrier only about 7 nm thick
l organelle about 25 nm in diameter
m organelle with a ‘9 + 2’ arrangement of microtubules [13]

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

CONTINUED
8 The transmission electron micrograph shows parts of two palisade cells
from a leaf.

J
I

F
B
H

A
D

E C
1.0 µm

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 1 Cell structure

CONTINUED
Copy the table. Identify the labelled structures A–J and write a brief statement
about their functions.

Label Name of structure Function

A [3]

B [3]

C [2]

D [2]

E [3]

F [3]

G [3]

H [2]

I [2]

J [2]

[Total: 25]

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

CONTINUED
9 The electron micrograph shows part of a secretory cell from the pancreas. You
are not expected to have seen a micrograph of this type of cell before. The cell
contains many secretory vesicles. These are Golgi vesicles. They appear as small,
roughly circular structures with black circular contents. The magnification is
×8000.

COMMAND WORDS
Calculate: work out
from given facts, figures
or information.
Give: produce an
answer from a given
source or recall/memory.
Suggest: apply
knowledge and
understanding to
situations where there
mitochondrion
is a range of valid
responses in order to
a Copy the table. Calculate the actual sizes of the structures listed in the make proposals / put
table. Use a ruler with mm divisions to help you. Show your measurements forward considerations.
and calculations. When you have your answers, complete the table with the
required information. Give your answers in micrometres.

Observed diameter Actual IMPORTANT

Structure
(measured with ruler) size
maximum diameter of a Golgi vesicle Use modelling clay
to make a sausage
maximum diameter of nucleus shape to represent
maximum length of the labelled a mitochondrion (or
mitochondrion use a real sausage).
Try cutting the
[9] sausage with a knife at
b Make a fully labelled drawing of representative parts of the cell. You do different angles. This
not have to draw everything, but enough to show the structures of the represents the process
main organelles. Use a full page of plain paper and a sharp pencil. Use of sectioning material
Figures 1.18 and 1.19 in this book and the simplified diagram in d below to for examination using
help you identify the structures. [14] a microscope. The cut
c The mitochondria in pancreatic cells are mostly sausage-shaped in three surfaces will reveal the
dimensions. Suggest why some of the mitochondria in the electron variation you can expect
micrograph here appear roughly circular. [1] to see in sections.

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 1 Cell structure

CONTINUED
d The figure is a diagram based on an electron micrograph of a secretory cell
from the pancreas. This type of cell is specialised for secreting (exporting)
proteins. Some of the proteins are digestive enzymes of the pancreatic juice.
The cell is very active, requiring a lot of energy. The arrows A, B, C and D
show the route taken by the protein molecules.
Note that arrow A is shown magnified in a separate diagram.
A magnified
E A C protein
B D (enzyme)
molecules

i Describe briefly what is happening at each of the stages A, B, C and D. [8]

ii Arrow E shows the path of a molecule or structure leaving the nucleus
through the nuclear envelope. Name one molecule or structure which
leaves the nucleus by route E. [1]
iii The molecule or structure you named in ii passes through the nuclear
envelope. Name the structure in the nuclear envelope through which the
molecule or structure passes. [1]
iv Name the molecule which leaves the mitochondrion in order to provide
energy for the cell. [1]
[Total: 35]
10 One technique used to investigate the activity of cell organelles is called
differential centrifugation. In this technique, a tissue is homogenised
(ground in a blender), placed in tubes and spun in a centrifuge. This makes
organelles sediment (settle) to the bottom of the tubes. The larger the
organelles, the faster they sediment. By repeating the process at faster and
faster speeds, the organelles can be separated from each other according to
size. Some liver tissue was treated in this way to separate ribosomes, nuclei
and mitochondria. The centrifuge was spun at 1000 g, 10 000 g or 100 000 g
(g is gravitational force).
a State in which of the three sediments (1000 g, 10 000 g or 100 000 g) you
would expect to find the following: COMMAND WORDS
i ribosomes Describe: state the
ii nuclei points of a topic / give
iii mitochondria [1] characteristics and
main features.
b Liver tissue contains many lysosomes. Suggest why this makes it difficult
to study mitochondria using the differential centrifugation technique. [4] State: express in clear
[Total: 5] terms.

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 CAMBRIDGE INTERNATIONAL AS & A LEVEL BIOLOGY: COURSEBOOK

SELF-EVALUATION CHECKLIST

After studying this chapter, complete a table like this:

See Needs Almost Ready to

I can
section... more work there move on
explain that cells are the basic units of life 1.1
use the units of measurement relevant to
1.2
microscopy
recognise the common structures found in cells
as seen with a light microscope and outline their 1.3
structures and functions
compare the key structural features of animal
1.3
and plant cells
use a light microscope and make temporary 1.3
preparations to observe cells
recognise, draw and measure cell structures from 1.3, 1.4
temporary preparations and micrographs
calculate magnifications of images and 1.4
actual sizes of specimens using drawings or
micrographs
explain the use of the electron microscope 1.5
to study cells with reference to the increased
resolution of electron microscopes
recognise the common structures found in cells 1.6
as seen with an electron microscope and outline
their structures and functions
outline briefly the role of ATP in cells 1.6
describe the structure of bacteria and compare 1.7, 1.8
the structure of prokaryotic cells with eukaryotic
cells
describe the structure of viruses 1.9

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