The Introduction of circuit parameter

Definition of inductance and continuity condition for inductors.

Energy stored in an inductor and in a capacitor
Definition of capacitance and Continuity condition for capacitors.
 This chapter will apply the Laplace transform to circuit analysis.
The equivalent models for the resistor, capacitor, and inductor will be introduced.
Setting up proper initial conditions will be covered.

Chapter two
Network transform representation and analysis
 The transformed circuit CIRCUIT ELEMENT MODELS

• When analyzing a network in time domain we will be dealing with derivation

and Integration
• However, when transformed to complex frequency domain these become
• Derivation -> multiplication by ‘s’ • Apart from the transformation
• Integration -> division by ‘s’ • Transform the complete circuit from
• Hence, it is easier to do network analysis in complex frequency domain. the time domain to the s-domain
The method used so far follows the steps:
1. Write the differential equation model
2. Use Laplace transform to convert the model to an algebraic form
For a more efficient approach:
1. Develop s-domain models for circuit elements
2. Draw the “Laplace equivalent circuit” keeping the interconnections and replacing the elements by their s-domain models
3. Analyze the Laplace equivalent circuit. All usual circuit tools are applicable and all
equations are algebraic.

TIME DOMAIN TO s-DOMAIN CIRCUITS

• s replaced t in the unknown currents and voltages.
Independen t sources Dependent sources • Independent source functions are replaced by their s-domain
v S ( t )  VS ( s ) v D (t )  AiC (t )  VD ( s )  AI C ( s ) transform pair.
• The initial condition serves as a second element, the initial
i S (t )  I S ( s) i D (t )  BvC (t )  I D ( s )  BVC ( s )
condition generator.
...
Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 2
 The transformed circuit

TIME DOMAIN TO s-DOMAIN CIRCUITS

• We must model the s-domain equivalent of the circuit elements when there is involving initial condition.
• Unlike resistor both indicator and capacitor are able to store energy.
• Therefore, it is important to consider the initial current of an indicator and the initial voltage of a capacitor.
• For a resistor, the voltage current relationships of network elements in time domain and complex
frequency domain are given as:
• For a resistor, the voltage current relationship
v  t   Ri  t 
The corresponding
in the time domain by ohm’s law: transform equations : V  s   RI  s 

The ration of the transform voltage 𝑉𝑅 (𝑠) to the current transform 𝐼𝑅 (𝑠) is
define as the transform impedance of the resistor, expressed as
𝑉𝑅 𝑠 Resistor
𝑧𝑅 𝑠 = =𝑅
𝐼𝑅 𝑠
Similarly, the reciprocal of this ratio is the transform admittance for the resistor,
expressed as
𝐼𝑅 𝑠 1
𝑌𝑅 𝑠 = = =𝐺
𝑉𝑅 𝑠 𝑅
v (t )  Ri (t )  V ( s )  RI ( s )
Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 3
 For an inductor

An Inductors in time domain

di  t 
v t   L
dt

The equivalent transform equation for the voltage express as:

di  di 
v (t )  L (t )  V ( s )  L( sI ( s )  i (0)) L    sI ( s)  i (0) V ( s ) i ( 0)
dt I ( s)  
 dt  Ls s
1
I s  V s 
i 0  

TRANSFORM OF CIRCUITS- INDUCTOR
sL s
Note here that the initial conditions can be
represented either as a voltage or as a current
source.
Representation of an inductor , at initial
conditions
(a)time-domain and (b,c) s-domain equivalents.

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 4

 Inductor
• When the current through an inductor is a constant, then the voltage across the inductor is zero, same as a short circuit.
• No sudden change of the current through an inductor is possible expect an infinite voltage across the inductor is applied
which is not possible.
• Switching inductive circuits is an important engineering problem, because arcing and voltage surges must be controlled
to prevent equipment damage.
Taking the Laplace transform of both sides gives
The time domain relation between the current in inductance In frequency domain they become
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) and voltage across 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) it is expressed as
𝑑𝑖 𝑡
𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑡
1
𝑖𝐿 (𝑡 = 𝑣 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑖(0− )
𝐿 0−

• An impedance sL in series with a voltage source

Used in mesh analysis.
or
• An admittance 1/sL in parallel with a current source
Used in nodal analysis.
• The circuit consists of an impedance of 𝐿𝑖(0− )ohms in series with an
independent voltage source. The polarity of the voltage source is –tve.
 • If v is a constant voltage, then i= o; a constant voltage across a capacitor creates no
TRANSFORM OF CIRCUITS- CAPACITOR current through the capacitor ,the capacitor in this case is the same as an open circuit.
Capacitor • voltage cannot change instantaneously across the terminals of a capacitor because
The time domain relation ships are such a change would produce infinite current, a physically impossibility.
• Every practical capacitor has a maximum limit on its operating voltage in order not to
break down the insulation of the dielectric.

Capacitor’s voltage: Capacitor’s current:

In frequency domain they become

s-domain equivalents
Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 6
 TRANSFORM OF CIRCUITS- CAPACITOR

For a Capacitor
dv  t 
i t   C
dt

Taking the Laplace Transform:

V s 
1
I s 
v 0 
sC s
A capacitor is represented in frequency domain as
An impedance 1/sC in series with a voltage source
Used in mesh analysis.
or
An admittance sC in parallel with a current source
Used in nodal analysis.

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 7

 TRANSFORM OF CIRCUITS- CAPACITOR

The s-domain equivalents are shown in Figure.(2). With the s-domain equivalents, the Laplace transform can be
used readily to solve first- and second-order circuits.
 Zero Initial Conditions
• In many applications, we will assume the initial Thus, the three elements will have the following impedances and
conditions are zero. admittance
• The resistor of course stays the same.
• For the inductor and capacitor, the equations are Elements impendences Admittance
simplified:

Resistor Z(s)=R 1
Y(s)=𝑅
Assume zero initial condition for the inductor and
capacitor, Inductor Z(s)= sL 1
Resistor V  s   RI  s  Y(s)=𝑠𝐿

Inductor V  s   sLI  s  Capacitor Z(s)=𝑠𝐶

1 Y(s)= sC
Capacitor 1
V s  I s
sC
The impedance of a circuit element is the ratio of • In the s-domain, the admittance is also
the phasor voltage to the phasor current. simply the reciprocal of the impedance:
define the impedance in the s-domain as:
1 I s
V s Y s  
Z s  Z s V s
I s
9
Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A
• The voltage current relationships of network elements in Time-domain and s-domain representations of passive
time domain and complex frequency domain are given as: elements under zero initial conditions.
 Impedance:
• Impedance is the total contribution of both -- resistance and reactance.
• Impedance is a more general term for resistance that also includes reactance.
• In other words, resistance is the opposition to a steady electric current.
• Pure resistance does not change with frequency, and typically the only time only resistance is considered is with
DC (direct current -- not changing) electricity.
• Reactance, however, is a measure of the type of opposition to AC electricity due to capacitance or inductance.
This opposition varies with frequency.
• For example, a capacitor only allows DC current to flow for a short while until it is charged; at that point,
current will stop flowing and it will look like an open.
• However, if a very high frequency is put across that capacitor (a signal that has a voltage which is changing very
quickly back and forth), the capacitor will look like a short circuit.
• The capacitor has a reactance which is inversely proportional to frequency.
• An inductor has a reactance which is directly proportional to frequency -- DC flows through easily while high-
frequency AC is stopped.

What is impedance?
• Impedance is similar to the resistance that an electronic component offers to the flow of current in a
circuit but with one difference - the resistance of the component varies depending on the frequency of the
signal entering the component.
• Frequency does not affect the resistance of nonreactive components.
  admittance is a measure of how easily a circuit or device will allow a current to flow.
 It is defined as the inverse of impedance.
 Resistance and impedance are very similar, and have the same unit (Ohm).
 The difference is that resistance counters the flow of DC current (using resistors), and impedance
counters the flow of AC current (using coils and capacitors).
 Y is the admittance, measured in siemens.

 Z is the impedance, measured in ohms.

• The most commonly used non-reactive component is the resistor. It offers the same
resistance irrespective of the frequency of the input voltage - like, for alternating current
or direct current. On the other hand, a reactive component such as a capacitor can have
high resistance at low frequencies and low resistance at higher frequencies. This
'resistance' is what is known as impedance. An inductor is also a reactive component but
this shows low resistance at low frequencies and high resistance at high frequencies.
Initial Conditions in Networks:
• WHY TO STUDY
• Differential Equations written for a network may contain arbitrary
constants equal to the order of the differential equations.
• The reason for studying initial conditions is to find the value of arbitrary
constants that appear in the general solution of differential equations
written for a given network.
• One significant advantage of the Laplace transform is that it includes both
stead-state and initial conditions.
• This allows for obtaining both the steady-state response as well as the
transient response.
• The s-domain equivalent elements can be readily used in first and second
order circuits.

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 17

 Initial Conditions in Networks:

In Initial conditions, we find the change in selected variables in a circuit when one or more
switches are moved from open to closed positions or vice versa.

 t=0- indicates the time just before changing the

position of the switch
 t=0 indicates the time when the
 t=0- this is the time of switching between −∞ 𝑡𝑜 0 or position of switch is changed
time before.

 t=0+ indicates the time immediately after changing  t=∞ this is the time of switching
the position of switch between t=0+ to ∞ (taken as final value
 t=0+ this is the time of switching at the instant just for step response)
after time t=0s (taken as initial value)

 Initial condition focuses solely on the current and voltages of energy storing elements (inductor and capacitor) as
they will determine the circuit behavior at t>0.
 past history of the circuit will show up as the capacitor voltages and inductor currents

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 18

 Initial Conditions in Networks:

• Conditions existing at instant are known as initial condition or initial state. Conditions at t = ∞
are used, these are known as final condition.
• At reference time t=0, the switch is closed (we assume that switch act in zero time.
• To differentiate between the time immediately before and after the operation of a switch, we
will use t = 0- and t = 0+ respectively.

• The conditions existing just before the switch is operated will be designed as i(0-), v(0-), q(0-).
• And conditions just after will be i(0+), v(0+), q(0+).

• Initial conditions in a network depend on the past history of the network prior to t =0- and the
network structure at t = 0+, after switching.

• The evaluation of all voltages and currents and their derivatives at t =0+, constitutes the
evaluation of initial conditions.
• Some times we use conditions at t =∞; these are known as final conditions

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 19

 INITIAL CONDITIONS IN ELEMENTS

1. RESISTOR
• In an ideal resistor, current and voltage are related by Ohm’s law, v=iR.
• On application of a step voltage across the resistor, the resulting current iR has the same shape as the
applied voltage but altered by the scale factor 1/R.
• The instantaneous current flowing through the resistor changes if the instantaneous voltage across it
changes & vice versa
• The past voltage or current values have no effect on the present or future working of the resistor i.e..
• It’s resistance remains the same irrespective of the past conditions.
• A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.
• An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching infinity.

Consider a circuit which consists of resistor R When the switch K is closed at t=0 the current I
connected with switch K as shown in Figure is flowing in a circuit and is given by

Figure 1.1: Series resonance circuit

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 20
 Inductor
• Consider a circuit which consists of inductor L connected by a
voltage source V in series with switch K as shown in Figure.

• The initial current flowing through the ideal inductor i (0)

just before closing the switch is equal to zero.
• Ideal Inductor like an ideal voltage source, has no Figure 1.2: Inductor circuit
resistance and it is excited by a dc voltage source .
• The inductor is a dynamic circuit element involving the time variation of the magnetic field produced by a
current.
• The current that flows through a linear inductor must always be a continuous.
• The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously in a system of constant inductance ,since an
instantaneous change in current would require an infinite voltage, which is not physically possible.
• Consequently, closing a switch to connect an inductor to a source of
• Hence t = 0− corresponds to the
energy will not cause current to flow at the initial instant. instant when the switch is just
• Thus inductor will act as if it were an open circuit independent of the open and
• t = 0+ corresponds to the instant
voltage at the terminals of the inductor. when the switch is just closed.

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 21

 • Initial and final conditions in elements
• For inductor
• The switch is closed at t = 0.
• When the switch K is closed at time t=0 the current flowing
in a inductor at t = 0+ is zero, the inductor acts as a open
circuit at t = 0+.
• if i(0− ) = 0, we get i(0+ )= 0.
• This means that at t = 0+, inductor will act as an open
• Figure 1.3: Inductor circuit at t = 0+
circuit, irrespective of the voltage across the terminals.
• Hence if i(0− ) = 0A, then i(0+ )= 0A.
• So we can visualize inductor as an open circuit, at t= 0+ .
Figure:The equivalent circuits of an inductor at t= 0+

• If a current of value 𝐼0 flows in the inductor at the instant (t=0− ) switching takes • If i(0− ) = 𝐼0 , then i(0+) = 𝐼0 .
place, current (𝐼0 )Will continue to flow just after switching (t=0+).
• Thus for the initial instant, the inductor can be thought of as a current source of
amp. i.e. 𝑖𝐿 (0− )=𝑖𝐿 (0+)= I0
• In this case at t = 0+, the inductor can be thought of as a current source of 𝑰𝟎 A.
Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 22
 •.

• The voltage across the inductor ( vL ) is zero when the current

flowing through an inductor does not change with time.
• This observation implies that the inductor acts as a short circuit
under steady state dc current.

final-condition
The final-condition equivalent circuit of an inductor is
• The equivalent circuits of an inductor at t = ∞
derived from the basic relationship.

• In other words, under the steady state condition, the inductor terminals are shorted through a
conducting wire.
𝑑𝑖
• Under steady state condition, rate of change of current flowing in inductor is = 0.
𝑑𝑡
• This means, v = 0 and hence L acts as short at t = ∞ (final or steady state).

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 23

 Inductor:

I. The current flowing through the inductor cannot change instantaneously (i.e. i(0− ) just right
before the change of current = i(0+ ) just right after the change of current).However, the
voltage across an inductor can change abruptly.
II. The inductor acts as a short circuit (i.e. inductor terminals are shorted with a conducting wire)
when the current flowing through the inductor does not change (constant).
III. These properties of inductor are important since they will be used to determine “boundary
conditions”.
CAPACITOR:
The capacitor will not allow any sudden changes in the voltage
across it.
• If an unchanged capacitor is connected to an energy source
then the voltage across it is initially is zero and hence it acts
as shortcircuit.
• If dc voltage is applied to capacitor, dVC / dt becomes zero
as dc voltage is constant with respect to time.
Hence the current through capacitor iC becomes zero, Thus
as far as dc quantities are considered capacitor acts as
open circuit.
• INDUCTOR:
• The current cannot change instantaneously in a system of constant inductance.
• An inductor will not allow any sudden changes in the current throughout it.
• If a switch is closed so as a to connect an indicator to a source of energy it will not
allow any current to flow at the initial instant and the will act as if it were an open
circuit of voltage at the terminals.
• If a current of I(0) flows in the conductor at the instant of switching the current
will continue to flow and the inductor can be through out as a current source of
I(0) amperes.
• If dc current flows through inductor, dil/dt becomes zero as dc current is constant
with respect to time. Hence
voltage across inductor, VL becomes zero. Thus, as for as dc quantities are
considered, in steady stake, inductor acts
as short circuit.
 For CAPACITOR

• The switch is closed at t = 0. Hence, t = 0 corresponds to • The expression for voltage across the
the instant when the switch is just open and t = 0+ capacitor is given by v(0+) = v(0-).
corresponds to the instant when the switch is just closed. • Thus the voltage across a capacitor cannot
• If 𝑣 0− = 0, then 𝑣(0+ ) = 0. This means that at t = 0+, change instantaneously.
capacitor q acts as short circuit.
𝑞0 𝑞0
• Conversely, if 𝑣 0− = then 𝑣(0+ ) = .
𝑐 𝑐
1 0+
1 𝑡 putting t=0+ 𝑣(0+ ) = 𝑣(0− ) + 𝐶 0− 𝑖𝑑𝑡
The expression for 𝑣= 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶 −∞ 𝑣(0+ ) = 𝑣(0− )
−
voltage across the 1 0 1 𝑡
capacitor is given by 𝑣= 𝑖𝑑𝑡 + 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶 −∞ 𝐶 0−
• if v(0− ) = 0V, then V(0+ )= 0V. Indicating
• if v(0− )
= 𝑉0 , then the capacitor can be visualized as a
the capacitor as a short circuit.
voltage source of 𝑉0 as shown

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 27

 Capacitor
• Consider a circuit which consists of capacitor C
connected as shown in Figure .
• When the switch K is closed at t=0 capacitor C acts
as short circuit and current flows in a capacitor
instantaneously .
Figure 1: Capacitor circuit at t = 0+

• When a voltage source is connected to the capacitor,

the source deposits a positive charge, +q, on one plate
and a negative charge, –q, on the other.
• If the capacitor is initially charged with charge 𝑞0
coulombs at t=0-, then at t=0+ the capacitor is
𝑞
equivalent to voltage source 𝑣0 = 0 which is as shown
𝑐
in Figure 1.5
Figure 1.5: Capacitor circuit at t = 0+

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 28

 Capacitor:
• If v is a constant voltage, then i=0; a constant voltage across a capacitor creates no current through the
capacitor, the capacitor in this case is the same as an open circuit.
• Voltage cannot change instantaneously across the terminals of a capacitor because such a change would
produce infinite current, a physical impossibility.
• Every practical capacitor has a maximum limit on its operating voltage in order not to break down the
insulation of the dielectric.
• The voltage cannot change instantaneously in a system of fixed capacitance.
• If an uncharged capacitor is connected to an energy source, a current will flow instantaneously, the
capacitor being equivalent to a short circuit.
• This follows because voltage and charge are proportional in a capacitive system, Vc= Q/C, so that zero
charge corresponds to zero voltage across the terminal of the capacitor.
• Uncharged capacitor is equivalent to a short circuit i.e. Vc(0-)=0as q(0)=0.
• Vc(0+)= q(0+/c),where q(0+) is the initial charge. thus capacitor Vc(0+)=Vc(0-).in fig.

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 29

• Final-conditions
• The final–condition equivalent network is derived from the
𝑑𝑣
basic relationship 𝑖=𝐶
𝑑𝑡
• Under steady state condition, rate of change of capacitor
𝑑𝑣
voltage is 𝑑𝑡 = 0. Figure 1.6: Capacitor circuit at t = ∞
• This means, v = 0 and hence C acts as open circuit at t = ∞.

• Under steady state condition, 𝑑𝑣/𝑑𝑡= 0. This is, at t =∞ , i = 0. This means that t = ∞ or in steady state,
capacitor C acts as an open circuit.

If the capacitor is initially charged with voltage v0

then the final condition at t = ∞ of a capacitor
circuit is replaced with voltage source v0 with open
circuit which is as shown in Figure 1.7
Figure 1.7: Capacitor circuit at t = ∞

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 30

 Table 1.1: Initial and Final Conditions

• The final condition equivalent circuits of elements is shown in Figure

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 31

 Procedure for Evaluating Initial Conditions:
1. Before closing or opening the switch at t=0- • There is no unique procedure that must be followed in
• find the history of the network, at t=0- solving for initial conditions. We usually solve for initial
• find i(0-), v(0-), i.e., current through inductor and values of currents and voltages and then solve for the
voltage across the capacitor before switching. derivatives.
2. Draw the circuit after switching operation at t=0+.
• For finding initial values of currents and voltages, an equivalent network of the original
network for t = 0+ is constructed according to the following rules:
1. Resistors are left in the network without any change.
2. Replace all inductors with open circuit or with current sources having the value of
current flowing at t = 0+.
3. Replace all capacitors with short circuit or with a voltage source of the value v(0+)=
q(0+)/C if there is an initial charge, q(0+)
4.Solving for the derivatives or initial values of the variables at t= 0+ :
• Find i(0+), and v(0+) at t=0+
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
5. Obtain an expression for and find at t=0+
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2
𝑑 𝑖 𝑑2𝑖
6. Obtain an expression for and 2
find at t=0+
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
7. Similarly determine voltages across circuit elements and its derivatives.
 First Order Circuits
• A first-order circuit can only contain one energy storage element (a capacitor or an inductor). The circuit
will also contain resistance.
• There are two types of first order circuits:
1.A circuit that contains only sources, resistor and capacitive is called an RC circuit.
2.A circuit that contains only sources, resistor and inductor is called an RL circuit.
• RC and RL circuits: the equation to analyze RC or RL circuit is a first-order differential equation. Thus,
RC, RL circuits are also known as first-order circuits.
• To analyze the resistor circuits, algebraic equations are needed.
• However, because of the memory effect of C or L, the time-differential equations are involved.
• Any first –order circuit can be reduced to a Thévenin (or Norton) equivalent connected to either a single
equivalent inductor or capacitor.

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 34

 First-Order RC Circuits

• Used for filtering signal by blocking certain frequencies and

passing others. e.g. low-pass filter.
• Any circuit with a single energy storage element, an arbitrary
number of sources and an arbitrary number of resistors is a
circuit of order 1.
• Any voltage or current in such a circuit is the solution to a 1st
order differential equation.
 First Order Circuits
• • Lots of natural phenomena can be modeled as RC or RL circuits. Hence, the RC or RL circuit can be seen as a
circuit itself, or can be seen as a model to describe the behavior of other physical elements.
• RL and RC circuits are called first –order circuits because their voltages and currents are describe by first order
differential equations.
• A first-order circuit is characterized by a first-order differential equation.

• In steady state, an inductor behave like a short circuit.

• In steady state, a capacitor behaves like an open circuit.
There are also two ways to excite the circuits:
• Initial conditions and Independent sources

1.By initial conditions of the storage elements (these source free circuits will give natural responses as expected)
– Source-free circuits: initial condition
• The energy is initially stored in C or L, and the energy causes current to flow in the circuit and is gradually dissipated
in resistors.
• Initial condition: response of a circuit before a switch is first activated.
– Since power equals energy per unit time, finite power requires continuous change in energy.
2.By step in puts :circuit are excited by independent sources. These circuits will give both the natural responses and the
forced response.
• Independent sources: dc, sinusoidal and exponential sources…. (dc only in this chapter)
Chapter two 36
SECE, Mr.Gechanu A
 RC and RL circuits(first order circuits )
Response Terminology
Time Dependence
Transient response –time varying response
• Sources Dependence
(temporary)
• Natural Response- response in absence of sources
Steady state response –time independent or
• Forced Response –response due to external source
periodic(permanent)
• complete response= Natural + Forced
complete response= transient+ steady stste
circuits containing no independent sources circuits containing independent sources
 Excitation from stored energy  DC source (voltage or current source)
 source-free circuit
 Source are modeled by step function
 natural response
 Step response
The Natural Response of a Circuit  Forced response
The Natural Response of a Circuit refers to the Step Response
behavior( in terms of currents and voltages ) of • The sudden application of a DC voltage or current source
the circuit itself, with no external sources of is referred to as a “step”.
excitation.
The behavior of the circuit with no external
sources of excitation.
Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 37
 Natural response: Step response:

• It describes the “discharging” of inductors or • Currents and voltages that arise when energy is being
capacitors via a circuit of no dependent source. acquired by an inductor or capacitor due to the sudden
 No external source is involved, thus termed as application of dc voltage or current source
“natural” response. • Happens when a dc voltage or current source is applied to
 A source-free circuit is one where all independent an inductor or a capacitor.
sources have been disconnected from the circuit after • The step response consists of the voltages and currents that
some switch action.(there was a transition in the arise when energy is being absorbed by an inductor or
source in the circuit ). capacitor.
• The “natural response” is one in which the inductor,
with current flowing through it, undergoes a
switching event that connects it to a resistance only.

• Energy is stored in an inductor (a ) as an initial current

• Energy is stored in a capacitor (b) as an initial voltage.
Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 38
 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
Complete solution by the differential equation approach.
1. Determine initial condition on capacitor voltage and /or inductor currents.
2. Find the differential equation for capacitor voltage or inductor currents(mesh/loop/nodal…analysis.
3. Determine the natural solution (complementary solution).
4. Determine the forced solution (particular solution).
5. Apply initial conditions to the complete solution to determine the unknown coefficient in the natural solution.

This chapter examines RC and LC circuits’ reaction to switched sources.

Why an RC or RL circuit is charged or is charged as an exponential function of
time?
Why the charging and discharging speed of an RC or RL circuit is determined by
RC or L/R?
What could happen when an energy-storing element (C or L) is connected to a
circuit with dependent source?

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 40

 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS and STEADY STABLE ANALYSIS.

• For a D.C supply, the voltage source or current source is constant throughout and currents
and voltages in all the branches also remain constant throughout and hence is called as a
steady state.
• Similar in the case of A.C supply, even though the source is alternating the branch currents
and voltages are constant throughout because the amplitude and frequency of this is constant.
Hence they are also related to as steady state analysis.
• Before the circuit reaches the steady state it passes through a state called as the transient
state.
• In a network containing energy storage elements with the charge in excitation, the currents
and voltages charge from one state to other state.
• The behavior of voltage or current when it is changed from one state to another state is called
the transient state.
• The time taken for the circuit to change from one state to another state is called the transient
time.
 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

TRANSIENT RESPONSE FOR DC CIRCUITS

 INTRODUCTION
 Electric circuits will be subjected to sudden changes which may be in the form of opening and closing of
switches or sudden changes in sources etc.
 Whenever such a change occurs, the circuit which was in a particular steady state condition will go to
another steady state condition.
 Transient analysis is the analysis of the circuits during the time it changes from one steady state condition
to another steady state condition.
 Transient analysis will reveal how the currents and voltages are changing during the transient period.
 To get such time responses, the mathematical models should necessarily be a set of differential equations.
 Setting up the mathematical models for transient analysis and obtaining the solutions are dealt with in this
chapter.
 A quick review on various test signals is presented first.
 Transient response of simple circuits using classical method of solving differential equations is then
discussed.
 Laplace Transform is a very useful tool for solving differential equations.
 After Laplace Transform, itsapplication in getting the transient analysis is also discussed.

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 42

 Transient behavior and Initial Conditions

• For higher order differential equation, the number of arbitrary constants equals the order of the equation.
• If these unknowns are to be evaluated for particular solution, other conditions in network must be known.
• A set of simultaneous equations must be formed containing general solution and some other equations to
match number of unknown with equations.
• We assume that at reference time t=0, network condition is changed by switching action.
• Assume that switch operates in zero time.
• The network conditions at this instant are called initial conditions in network.

The following are the objectives of studying the behavior of the circuit for Initial-Conditions:
1. The most important reason is that the initial and final conditions must be known to evaluate the
arbitrary constants that appear in the general solution of a differential equation.
2. The initial conditions give knowledge of the behavior of the circuit elements at the instant of switching.
3. The final conditions give knowledge of the behavior of the circuit elements after the settling of circuit at
t=∞

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 43

 Transient behavior and Initial Conditions

• It is most useful to understand the behavior of the network when we switched on the network by supplying
voltage source.
• It is most important to determine the transient response of R-L, R-C, R-L-C series circuits for d.c and a.c
excitations.
• Assuming that at reference time t= 0, the switch in the circuit is closed and also assuming that switch act in
zero time.
• To differentiate between the time immediately before and immediately after the operation of a switch, is
represented as t= 0−and t= 0+signs are used.
• The condition existing just before the switch is operated will be designated as i(0−), v(0−), q(0−) and the
conditions existing after closing of a switch is designated as as i(0+),v(0+), q(0+).
• Also initial conditions of a network depend on the past history of the network prior the closing of the
network at t= 0−and the network structure at t= 0+, after switching.
• The evaluation of voltages and currents and their derivatives at t= 0+, are known as initial conditions and
evaluation of condition at t=∞are known as final conditions

Chapter two SECE, Mr.Gechanu A 44

 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS

• The switch may be supposed to close or open at time t=0

• The conditions just before the switch is operated will be designated as i(0-),v(0-) and conditions after the switch is
operated as i(0+) and v(0+).
• To differentiate between immediately before and immediately after the operation of the switch we use – and + signs
• After closing the switch new currents and voltages may appear in the network as the result of initial capacitor
voltages the initial inductor currents are because of the network of the current and voltage sources which are
introduced
• The transient changes are assumed to occur at time t=0 and represented by a switch.
• The transient changes may occur due to
1. A change in the interconnections within the network
2. A change in the element values
3. A change in the nature of the excitation itself
• Depending on the circuit parameters, the response changes from an initial steady state to the fire steady state in a
time period known as transient period
• The response is known as the transient response or transients
 CERTAIN COMMON ASPECTS OF RC AND RL CIRCUITS

• While doing transient analysis on simple RC and RL circuits, we need to make use of the
following two facts.
1. The voltage across a capacitor as well as the current in an inductor cannot have
discontinuity.
2. With dc excitation, at steady state, capacitor will act as an open circuit and inductor will
act as a short circuit.
• These two aspects can be explained as follows.
• If the voltage across the capacitor has discontinuity, then at the time when the discontinuity
occurs, dv / dt becomes infinity resulting the current iC to become infinity.
• However, in physical system, we exclude the possibility of infinite current.
• Then, we state that in a capacitor, the voltage cannot have discontinuity.
• Suppose, if the circuit condition is changed at time t = 0, the capacitor voltage must b
continuous at time t = 0 and hence vC(0+) = vC(0-).
• where time 0+ refers the time just after t = 0 and time 0- refers the time just before t = 0.
 CERTAIN COMMON ASPECTS OF RC AND RL CIRCUITS

• If the current through the inductor has discontinuity, then at the time when the discontinuity occurs, di / dt
becomes infinity resulting the voltage vL to become infinity.
• However, in physical system, we exclude the possibility of infinite voltage.
• Then, we state that in an inductor, the current cannot have discontinuity.
• Suppose, if the circuit condition is changed at time t = 0, the inductor current must be continuous at time t =
0 and hence 𝑖𝐿 0+ = 𝑖𝐿 0− iL(
• With dc excitation, at steady state condition, all the element currents and voltages are of dc in nature.
Therefore, both di / dt and dv / dt will be zero.
• Since iC = C (dv / dt) and vL = L (di / dt), with dc excitation, at steady state condition, the current through
the capacitor as well as the voltage across the inductor will be zero.
• In other words, with dc excitation, at steady state condition, the capacitor will act as an open circuit and the
inductor will act as a short circuit.
• Switching occurs at time t = 0
• vC(0+) = vC(0-) iL(0+) = iL(0-)
• With DC excitation, at steady state capacitor acts as OPEN CIRCUIT and inductor acts as S
 TRANSIENT ANALYSIS
Initial condition: response of a circuit before a switch is first activated.
– Since power equals energy per unit time, finite power requires continuous
change in energy.
Capacitor voltages and inductor currents cannot change instantaneously but should be continuous. ->
continuity
of capacitor voltages and inductor currents
The value of an inductor current or a capacitor voltage just prior to the closing (or opening) of a switch is
equal
to the value just after the switch has been closed (or opened).
General form of the D.E. and the response for a 1st-order source-free circuit
In general, a first-order D.E. has the form:
Solving this differential equation (as we did with the RC circuit)
yields:

• Equivalent Resistance seen by a Capacitor

• For the RC circuit in the previous example, it was determined that τ = RC. But what value of R
should be used in circuits with multiple resistors?
• In general, a first-order RC circuit has the following time constant:
where Req is the Thevenin resistance seen by the capacitor.
More specifically,
 Source free RL Circuit
Consider the RL circuit shown below. Use KCL to find the differential equation:

and use the general form of the solution

to a first-order D.E. to show that:

For the RL circuit in the previous example, it was determined that τ = L/R.
As with the RC circuit, the value of R should actually be the equivalent (or Thevenin) resistance seen by the
inductor.
In general, a first-order RL circuit has the following time constant: